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一、标题 一篇较长的英语论文(如英语毕业论文)一般都需要标题页,其书写格式如下:第一行标题与打印纸顶端的距离约为打印纸全长的三分之一,与下行(通常为by,居中)的距离则为5cm,第三、第四行分别为作者姓名及日期(均居中)。 如果该篇英语论文是学生针对某门课程而写,则在作者姓名与日期之间还需分别打上教师学衔及其姓名(如:D/PCPrager)及本门课程的编号或名称(如:English 734或British Novel)。打印时,如无特殊要求,每一行均需double space,即隔行打印,行距约为6cm(论文其他部分行距同此)。 二、提纲 英语论文提纲页包括论题句及提纲本身,其规范格式如下:先在第一行(与打印纸顶端的距离仍为5cm左右)的始端打上 Thesis 一词及冒号,空一格后再打论题句,回行时左边须与论题句的第一个字母上下对齐。 主要纲目以大写罗马数字标出,次要纲目则依次用大写英文字母、阿拉伯数字和小写英文字母标出。各数字或字母后均为一句点,空出一格后再打该项内容的第一个字母；处于同一等级的纲目,其上下行左边必须对齐。 需要注意的是,同等重要的纲目必须是两个以上,即:有Ⅰ应有Ⅱ,有A应有B,以此类推。如果英文论文提纲较长,需两页纸,则第二页须在右上角用小写罗马数字标出页码,即ii(第一页无需标页码)。 三、摘要 1、英文摘要是应用符合英文语法的文字语言，提供论文内容梗概为目的的短文。（内容基本与中文摘要相同，但不用完全逐句对应）。 2、英文题目、摘要、关键词自成一页（1页即可），放在中文摘要页之后。 3、英文字体与行间距： 统一使用“西文字体”中的“Times New Roman”，5倍行间距。 4、英文题目： 使用三号字加粗。 5、英文摘要： “Absract”顶格，使用四号字，并加粗。 英文摘要具体内容使用四号字。 6、英文关键词： “Key Words”顶格，使用四号字并加粗。 四、正文 有标题页和提纲页的英语论文,其正文第一页的规范格式为:论文标题居中,其位置距打印纸顶端约5cm,距正文第一行约5cm。段首字母须缩进五格,即从第六格打起。 正文第一页不必标页码(但应计算其页数),自第二页起,必须在每页的右上角(即空出第一行,在其后部)打上论文作者的姓,空一格后再用阿拉伯数字标出页码；阿拉伯数字(或其最后一位)应为该行的最后一个空格。 在打印正文时尚需注意标点符号的打印格式,即:句末号(句号、问号及感叹号)后应空两格,其他标点符号后则空一格。 五、文中引述 正确引用作品原文或专家、学者的论述是写好英语论文的重要环节；既要注意引述与论文的有机统一,即其逻辑性,又要注意引述格式 （即英语论文参考文献）的规范性。 引述别人的观点,可以直接引用,也可以间接引用。无论采用何种方式,论文作者必须注明所引文字的作者和出处。美国学术界通行的做法是在引文后以圆括弧形式注明引文作者及出处。 六、文献目录 论文作者在正文之后必须提供论文中全部引文的详细出版情况,即文献目录页。美国高校一般称此页为 Works Cited, 其格式须注意下列几点: 目录页应与正文分开,另页打印,置于正文之后。 目录页应视为英语论文的一页,按论文页码的顺序在其右上角标明论文作者的姓和页码；如果条目较多,不止一页,则第一页不必标出作者姓和页码(但必须计算页数),其余各页仍按顺序标明作者姓和页码。 标题Works Cited与打印纸顶端的距离约为5cm,与第一条目中第一行的距离仍为6cm；各条目之间及各行之间的距离亦为6cm,不必留出更多空白。 各条目内容顺序分别为作者姓、名、作品名、出版社名称、出版地、出版年份及起止页码等；各条目应严格按各作者姓的首字母顺序排列,但不要给各条目编码,也不必将书条与杂志、期刊等条目分列。各条目第一行需顶格打印,回行时均需缩进五格,以将该条目与其他条目区分开来。 英语论文摘要又称文摘，是论文的重要组成部分，它是以提供文献内容梗概为目的，不加评论和补充解释，简明、确切地记述文献重要内容的短文。摘要应具有独立性和自明性，并拥有与文献同等量的主要信息，即不需阅读全文，就可获得重要的信息。 摘要通常置于文题之后，文章之首。在论文发表后，论文摘要常被文献检索系统所收集。英语论文摘要一般为200-300单词，并有与英文摘要表达观点一致的中文摘要与之对应。（内容来源：学术堂）
A Short History of the development of nanotechnology纳米发展小史In 1959, the famous physicist, Nobel laureates R Feynman predicted that human beings can use small machines to produce smaller machines, according to the final realization of the wishes of the human order-by-atom, to create products that this is the first on the dream of 1959年，著名物理学家、诺贝尔奖获得者理查德。费曼预言，人类可以用小的机器制作更小的机器，最后实现根据人类意愿逐个排列原子、制造产品，这是关于纳米科技最早的梦想。In 1991, American scientists successfully synthesized carbon nanotubes, and found that it was only with the quality of the volume of steel 1 / 6, the intensity is 10 times that of steel, so called super The nano-materials found signs of human To explore the properties of the material has reached a new In 1999, nanotechnology products to achieve an annual turnover of 50,000,000,000 US dollars1991年，美国科学家成功地合成了碳纳米管，并发现其质量仅为同体积钢的1/6，强度却是钢的10倍，因此称之为超级纤维这一纳米材料的发现标志人类对材料性能的发掘达到了新的高度。1999年，纳米产品的年营业额达到500亿美元What is a nano-materials什么是纳米材料Nanometer (nm) is the length of the unit, a nanometer is 10-9 meters (a billionth of a meter), the macro-material, the nano is a small unit, not as human hair in diameter for the general 7000 -- 8000nm, the diameter of human red blood cells normally 3000-5000nm, the general diameter of the virus are also a few dozen to several hundred nano-size, metal grain size generally Submicron order of magnitude; for microscopic material, such as atoms, molecules, such as before with Egypt to Said an Egyptian equivalent to a hydrogen atom's diameter, a nanometer is 10 Egypt纳米（nm）是长度单位，1纳米是10-9米（十亿分之一米），对宏观物质来说，纳米是一个很小的单位，不如，人的头发丝的直径一般为7000-8000nm，人体红细胞的直径一般为3000-5000nm，一般病毒的直径也在几十至几百纳米大小，金属的晶粒尺寸一般在微米量级；对于微观物质如原子、分子等以前用埃来表示，1埃相当于1个氢原子的直径，1纳米是10埃It is generally believed nanomaterials should include two basic conditions: First, the material characteristics of the 1-100nm in size between the two materials at this time is different from conventional size materials have some special physical and chemical 一般认为纳米材料应该包括两个基本条件：一是材料的特征尺寸在1-100nm之间，二是材料此时具有区别常规尺寸材料的一些特殊物理化学特性。
+Science&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=EYOdzukZQ7&sig=bskKId1Ujx5wNc8wLgAqP7KWILw材料科学 Materials ScienceMaterials science or materials engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of science and This science investigates the relationship between the structure of materials and their It includes elements of applied physics and chemistry, as well as chemical, mechanical, civil and electrical With significant media attention to nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many It is also an important part of forensic engineering and forensic materials engineering, the study of failed products and HistoryThe material of choice of a given era is often its defining point; the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Steel Age are examples of Materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science, deriving from the manufacture of Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when Willard Gibbs demonstrated that thermodynamic properties relating to atomic structure in various phases are related to the physical properties of a Important elements of modern materials science are a product of the space race: the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in the construction of space vehicles enabling the exploration of Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such as plastics, semiconductors, and Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, from a 19th and early 20th century emphasis on The field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including: ceramics, polymers, semiconductors, magnetic materials, medical implant materials and biological [edit] Fundamentals of materials scienceIn materials science, rather than haphazardly looking for and discovering materials and exploiting their properties, one instead aims to understand materials fundamentally so that new materials with the desired properties can be The basis of all materials science involves relating the desired properties and relative performance of a material in a certain application to the structure of the atoms and phases in that material through The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final These, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics, govern a material’s microstructure, and thus its An old adage in materials science says: "materials are like people; it is the defects that make them interesting" The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is currently physically Instead materials scientists manipulate the defects in crystalline materials such as precipitates, grain boundaries (Hall-Petch relationship), interstitial atoms, vacancies or substitutional atoms, to create materials with the desired Not all materials have a regular crystal Polymers display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non- Glasses, some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous, not possessing any long-range order in their atomic The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic, as well as mechanical, descriptions of physical In addition to industrial interest, materials science has gradually developed into a field which provides tests for condensed matter or solid state New physics emerge because of the diverse new material properties which need to be [edit] Materials in industryRadical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing techniques (casting, rolling, welding, ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering, glassblowing, ), and analytical techniques (characterization techniques such as electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, calorimetry, nuclear microscopy (HEFIB), Rutherford backscattering, neutron diffraction, )Besides material characterisation, the material scientist/engineer also deals with the extraction of materials and their conversion into useful Thus ingot casting, foundry techniques, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a metallurgist/ Often the presence, absence or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will have a great impact on the final properties of the materials produced, for instance, steels are classified based on 1/10th and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they Thus, the extraction and purification techniques employed in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace will have an impact of the quality of steel that may be The overlap between physics and materials science has led to the offshoot field of materials physics, which is concerned with the physical properties of The approach is generally more macroscopic and applied than in condensed matter See important publications in materials physics for more details on this field of The study of metal alloys is a significant part of materials Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon For the steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is directly related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and The addition of silicon and graphitization will produce cast irons (although some cast irons are made precisely with no graphitization) The addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%) gives us stainless Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and Copper alloys have been known for a long time (since the Bronze Age), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering Other than metals, polymers and ceramics are also an important part of materials Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what we commonly call Plastics are really the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final Polymers which have been around, and which are in current widespread use, include polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and Plastics are generally classified as "commodity", "specialty" and "engineering" PVC (polyvinyl-chloride) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are It lends itself to an incredible array of applications, from artificial leather to electrical insulation and cabling, packaging and Its fabrication and processing are simple and well- The versatility of PVC is due to the wide range of plasticisers and other additives that it The term "additives" in polymer science refers to the chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material Polycarbonate would be normally considered an engineering plastic (other examples include PEEK, ABS) Engineering plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity Specialty plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, It should be noted here that the dividing line between the various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and For instance, polyethylene (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable shopping bags and trash bags, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas Medium-Density Polyethylene MDPE is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called Ultra-high Molecular Weight Polyethylene UHMWPE is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip Another application of material science in industry is the making of composite Composite materials are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic An example would be steel-reinforced concrete; another can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibres or carbon fibres have been added for added strength, bulk, or electro-static These additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibres, or dispersants, depending on their [edit] Classes of materials (by bond types)Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, each of which may constitute a separate Materials are sometimes classified by the type of bonding present between the atoms:Ionic crystals Covalent crystals Metals Intermetallics Semiconductors Polymers Composite materials Vitreous materials [edit] Sub-fields of materials scienceNanotechnology – rigorously, the study of materials where the effects of quantum confinement, the Gibbs-Thomson effect, or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material; but more commonly, it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a nanometer to one hundred nanometers in scale, such as molecularly engineered Microtechnology - study of materials and processes and their interaction, allowing microfabrication of structures of micrometric dimensions, such as MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) Crystallography – the study of how atoms in a solid fill space, the defects associated with crystal structures such as grain boundaries and dislocations, and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical Materials Characterization – such as diffraction with x-rays, electrons, or neutrons, and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscope analysis, , in order to understand and define the properties of See also List of surface analysis methods Metallurgy – the study of metals and their alloys, including their extraction, microstructure and Biomaterials – materials that are derived from and/or used with biological Electronic and magnetic materials – materials such as semiconductors used to create integrated circuits, storage media, sensors, and other Tribology – the study of the wear of materials due to friction and other Surface science/Catalysis – interactions and structures between solid-gas solid-liquid or solid-solid Ceramography – the study of the microstructures of high-temperature materials and refractories, including structural ceramics such as RCC, polycrystalline silicon carbide and transformation toughened ceramics Some practitioners often consider rheology a sub-field of materials science, because it can cover any material that However, modern rheology typically deals with non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, so it is often considered a sub-field of continuum See also granular Glass Science – any non-crystalline material including inorganic glasses, vitreous metals and non-oxide Forensic engineering – the study of how products fail, and the vital role of the materials of construction Forensic materials engineering – the study of material failure, and the light it sheds on how engineers specify materials in their product [edit] Topics that form the basis of materials scienceThermodynamics, statistical mechanics, kinetics and physical chemistry, for phase stability, transformations (physical and chemical) and Crystallography and chemical bonding, for understanding how atoms in a material are Mechanics, to understand the mechanical properties of materials and their structural Solid-state physics and quantum mechanics, for the understanding of the electronic, thermal, magnetic, chemical, structural and optical properties of Diffraction and wave mechanics, for the characterization of Chemistry and polymer science, for the understanding of plastics, colloids, ceramics, liquid crystals, solid state chemistry, and Biology, for the integration of materials into biological Continuum mechanics and statistics, for the study of fluid flows and ensemble Mechanics of materials, for the study of the relation between the mechanical behavior of materials and their 材料科学材料是人类可以利用的物质，一般是指固体。而材料科学是研究材料的制备或加工工艺、材料结构与材料性能三者之间的相互关系的科学。涉及的理论包括固体物理学，材料化学，与电子工程结合，则衍生出电子材料，与机械结合则衍生出结构材料，与生物学结合则衍生出生物材料等等。材料科学理论物理冶金学 晶体学 固体物理学 材料化学 材料热力学 材料动力学 材料计算科学[编辑] 材料的分类按化学状态分类 金属材料 无机物非金属材料 陶瓷材料 有机材料 高分子材料 按物理性质分类 高强度材料 耐高温材料 超硬材料 导电材料 绝缘材料 磁性材料 透光材料 半导体材料 按状态分类 单晶材料 多晶质材料 非晶态材料 准晶态材料 按物理效应分类 压电材料 热电材料 铁电材料 光电材料 电光材料 声光材料 磁光材料 激光材料 按用途分类 建筑材料 结构材料 研磨材料 耐火材料 耐酸材料 电工材料 电子材料 光学材料 感光材料 包装材料 按组成分类 单组分材料 复合材料 [编辑] 材料工程技术金属材料成形 机械加工 热加工 陶瓷冶金 粉末冶金 薄膜生长技术 表面处理技术 表面改性技术 表面涂覆技术 热处理 [编辑] 材料的应用结构材料 信息材料 存储材料 半导体材料 宇航材料 建筑材料 能源材料 生物材料 环境材料 储能材料和含能材料 参考%E6%9D%90%E6%96%99%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6
1 。导言 吸水环氧树脂系统是一项具有挑战性的问题，由于不可逆转的变化，水运作的聚合物性能。据信，并有足够的实验证据的入口处水诱导： （一）膨胀的制度和建立残余应力及其附近的接口[ 1 ] ， （二）破裂之间的粘接系统和一个由于基板[ 2 ] ， （三）光圈环氧乙烷其余群体[ 3 ] ， （ d ）项修改地方应力状态和建立microcrazes通过环境应力开裂[ 4 ] 。 没有通用的模式，以涵盖所有类型的水分子扩散[ 1 ] 。几个机制水入口已经提出： （一）由菲克扩散的法律通过自由体积的聚合物[ 5 ] ， （ b ）个案二扩散机制的渗透肿胀是有限的聚合物蠕变[ 6 ] ， （三）肿胀诱导有利聚合物溶剂参数， （ d ）项渗透现象由于微孔的存在，渠道和其他缺陷聚合物[ 7 ] 。 这也是常见的文献，水扩散系数在不同的环氧树脂系统大约10月8日至10月10日平方厘米的S - 1 [ 1,2,8 ] ，也可用于橡胶改性成分[ 8 ] 。相似的价值得到了其他玻璃状聚合物系统[ 2 ] 。扩散系数措施最初率吸水率和原则，应该依赖于化学性质的聚合物系统和交联度的交联系统，如环氧树脂的。但是，因为这将显示在这个文件，类似的扩散系数被发现即使不能完全治愈系统。 在努力为设计抗水环氧系统，有必要知道哪些材料参数的真正参与和控制的过程中水分的吸收。在本文中，我们研究了水分的吸收性能的一个新的总部设在环氧树脂配方中使用的硬化剂的反应导数的疏水性聚合物，如聚硅氧烷。这将是表明，当共同的双酚A二缩水甘油醚（ DGEBA ）树脂固化，在场的聚（ 3 - aminopropylmethylsiloxane ） （参与机构调动系统） ，平衡性能大大增强。此外，由于特殊的特点和形态的环氧系统[ 9 ] ，不同的行为，发现postcuring温度。
PVA film is widely used as a kind of water soluble polymer material, transparent and has good toughness, resistance and excellent performance of the sweet, is a kind of green packaging material is very promising, but due to the PVA molecule contains a large number of hydroxyl, hydroxyl form easily with water molecules in the hydrogen bond, lead to water resistance is poor, limits the application This paper analyzes the shortcoming of water resistance of PVA research results, using urea and boric acid to improve the water resistance of polyvinyl alcohol modifier, experiments are used in modification of polyvinyl alcohol with different amount of urea and boric acid, by the measurement of thin film dissolution rate and swelling ratio, urea and boric acid water the best of the blend film dosage were determined, and then through the method of comparison analysis of the modification effect of urea and boric acid on the polyvinyl alcohol, the urea on the modification effect is better than that of boric acid polyvinyl alcohol film water resistance of urea modified theory, water resistance of PVA film and mechanical properties of Modified PVA boric acid water film test, analysis of test results, the amount of the modifier modified film mechanical properties (tensile strength, elongation at break, tear strength)
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中国此类科技文献现在一般都是直接使用英语，行内的都看得懂。全世界现在只有日本还在做一有新期刊就通过化学学会进行统一日本语化的做法，因为这样需要大量的人力物力。你如果需要写论文的话直接把breath-figure法放着，大家都看得懂的。至于breath-figure法是什么具体的方法，我帮你找了下。“1994年, Francois等人首次以二硫化碳为溶剂, 在高湿度条件下制备了基于星形聚合物的蜂窝状有序膜[1] 这一方法被称作“breath figure”法、水辅助法(water-assisted method)或水滴模板法(water drop templating method)”（引用自）注释[1]的原始文献来源是Widawski G, Rawiso M, Francois B Self-organized honeycomb morphology of star-polymer polystyrene Nature, 1994, 369(6479): 387—389[DOI]感兴趣的可以到nature的数据库里面搜索原文研究下
+Science&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=EYOdzukZQ7&sig=bskKId1Ujx5wNc8wLgAqP7KWILw材料科学 Materials ScienceMaterials science or materials engineering is an interdisciplinary field involving the properties of matter and its applications to various areas of science and This science investigates the relationship between the structure of materials and their It includes elements of applied physics and chemistry, as well as chemical, mechanical, civil and electrical With significant media attention to nanoscience and nanotechnology in recent years, materials science has been propelled to the forefront at many It is also an important part of forensic engineering and forensic materials engineering, the study of failed products and HistoryThe material of choice of a given era is often its defining point; the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Steel Age are examples of Materials science is one of the oldest forms of engineering and applied science, deriving from the manufacture of Modern materials science evolved directly from metallurgy, which itself evolved from A major breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when Willard Gibbs demonstrated that thermodynamic properties relating to atomic structure in various phases are related to the physical properties of a Important elements of modern materials science are a product of the space race: the understanding and engineering of the metallic alloys, and silica and carbon materials, used in the construction of space vehicles enabling the exploration of Materials science has driven, and been driven by, the development of revolutionary technologies such as plastics, semiconductors, and Before the 1960s (and in some cases decades after), many materials science departments were named metallurgy departments, from a 19th and early 20th century emphasis on The field has since broadened to include every class of materials, including: ceramics, polymers, semiconductors, magnetic materials, medical implant materials and biological [edit] Fundamentals of materials scienceIn materials science, rather than haphazardly looking for and discovering materials and exploiting their properties, one instead aims to understand materials fundamentally so that new materials with the desired properties can be The basis of all materials science involves relating the desired properties and relative performance of a material in a certain application to the structure of the atoms and phases in that material through The major determinants of the structure of a material and thus of its properties are its constituent chemical elements and the way in which it has been processed into its final These, taken together and related through the laws of thermodynamics, govern a material’s microstructure, and thus its An old adage in materials science says: "materials are like people; it is the defects that make them interesting" The manufacture of a perfect crystal of a material is currently physically Instead materials scientists manipulate the defects in crystalline materials such as precipitates, grain boundaries (Hall-Petch relationship), interstitial atoms, vacancies or substitutional atoms, to create materials with the desired Not all materials have a regular crystal Polymers display varying degrees of crystallinity, and many are completely non- Glasses, some ceramics, and many natural materials are amorphous, not possessing any long-range order in their atomic The study of polymers combines elements of chemical and statistical thermodynamics to give thermodynamic, as well as mechanical, descriptions of physical In addition to industrial interest, materials science has gradually developed into a field which provides tests for condensed matter or solid state New physics emerge because of the diverse new material properties which need to be [edit] Materials in industryRadical materials advances can drive the creation of new products or even new industries, but stable industries also employ materials scientists to make incremental improvements and troubleshoot issues with currently used Industrial applications of materials science include materials design, cost-benefit tradeoffs in industrial production of materials, processing techniques (casting, rolling, welding, ion implantation, crystal growth, thin-film deposition, sintering, glassblowing, ), and analytical techniques (characterization techniques such as electron microscopy, x-ray diffraction, calorimetry, nuclear microscopy (HEFIB), Rutherford backscattering, neutron diffraction, )Besides material characterisation, the material scientist/engineer also deals with the extraction of materials and their conversion into useful Thus ingot casting, foundry techniques, blast furnace extraction, and electrolytic extraction are all part of the required knowledge of a metallurgist/ Often the presence, absence or variation of minute quantities of secondary elements and compounds in a bulk material will have a great impact on the final properties of the materials produced, for instance, steels are classified based on 1/10th and 1/100 weight percentages of the carbon and other alloying elements they Thus, the extraction and purification techniques employed in the extraction of iron in the blast furnace will have an impact of the quality of steel that may be The overlap between physics and materials science has led to the offshoot field of materials physics, which is concerned with the physical properties of The approach is generally more macroscopic and applied than in condensed matter See important publications in materials physics for more details on this field of The study of metal alloys is a significant part of materials Of all the metallic alloys in use today, the alloys of iron (steel, stainless steel, cast iron, tool steel, alloy steels) make up the largest proportion both by quantity and commercial Iron alloyed with various proportions of carbon gives low, mid and high carbon For the steels, the hardness and tensile strength of the steel is directly related to the amount of carbon present, with increasing carbon levels also leading to lower ductility and The addition of silicon and graphitization will produce cast irons (although some cast irons are made precisely with no graphitization) The addition of chromium, nickel and molybdenum to carbon steels (more than 10%) gives us stainless Other significant metallic alloys are those of aluminium, titanium, copper and Copper alloys have been known for a long time (since the Bronze Age), while the alloys of the other three metals have been relatively recently Due to the chemical reactivity of these metals, the electrolytic extraction processes required were only developed relatively The alloys of aluminium, titanium and magnesium are also known and valued for their high strength-to-weight ratios and, in the case of magnesium, their ability to provide electromagnetic These materials are ideal for situations where high strength-to-weight ratios are more important than bulk cost, such as in the aerospace industry and certain automotive engineering Other than metals, polymers and ceramics are also an important part of materials Polymers are the raw materials (the resins) used to make what we commonly call Plastics are really the final product, created after one or more polymers or additives have been added to a resin during processing, which is then shaped into a final Polymers which have been around, and which are in current widespread use, include polyethylene, polypropylene, PVC, polystyrene, nylons, polyesters, acrylics, polyurethanes, and Plastics are generally classified as "commodity", "specialty" and "engineering" PVC (polyvinyl-chloride) is widely used, inexpensive, and annual production quantities are It lends itself to an incredible array of applications, from artificial leather to electrical insulation and cabling, packaging and Its fabrication and processing are simple and well- The versatility of PVC is due to the wide range of plasticisers and other additives that it The term "additives" in polymer science refers to the chemicals and compounds added to the polymer base to modify its material Polycarbonate would be normally considered an engineering plastic (other examples include PEEK, ABS) Engineering plastics are valued for their superior strengths and other special material They are usually not used for disposable applications, unlike commodity Specialty plastics are materials with unique characteristics, such as ultra-high strength, electrical conductivity, electro-fluorescence, high thermal stability, It should be noted here that the dividing line between the various types of plastics is not based on material but rather on their properties and For instance, polyethylene (PE) is a cheap, low friction polymer commonly used to make disposable shopping bags and trash bags, and is considered a commodity plastic, whereas Medium-Density Polyethylene MDPE is used for underground gas and water pipes, and another variety called Ultra-high Molecular Weight Polyethylene UHMWPE is an engineering plastic which is used extensively as the glide rails for industrial equipment and the low-friction socket in implanted hip Another application of material science in industry is the making of composite Composite materials are structured materials composed of two or more macroscopic An example would be steel-reinforced concrete; another can be seen in the "plastic" casings of television sets, cell-phones and so These plastic casings are usually a composite material made up of a thermoplastic matrix such as acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS) in which calcium carbonate chalk, talc, glass fibres or carbon fibres have been added for added strength, bulk, or electro-static These additions may be referred to as reinforcing fibres, or dispersants, depending on their [edit] Classes of materials (by bond types)Materials science encompasses various classes of materials, each of which may constitute a separate Materials are sometimes classified by the type of bonding present between the atoms:Ionic crystals Covalent crystals Metals Intermetallics Semiconductors Polymers Composite materials Vitreous materials [edit] Sub-fields of materials scienceNanotechnology – rigorously, the study of materials where the effects of quantum confinement, the Gibbs-Thomson effect, or any other effect only present at the nanoscale is the defining property of the material; but more commonly, it is the creation and study of materials whose defining structural properties are anywhere from less than a nanometer to one hundred nanometers in scale, such as molecularly engineered Microtechnology - study of materials and processes and their interaction, allowing microfabrication of structures of micrometric dimensions, such as MicroElectroMechanical Systems (MEMS) Crystallography – the study of how atoms in a solid fill space, the defects associated with crystal structures such as grain boundaries and dislocations, and the characterization of these structures and their relation to physical Materials Characterization – such as diffraction with x-rays, electrons, or neutrons, and various forms of spectroscopy and chemical analysis such as Raman spectroscopy, energy-dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), chromatography, thermal analysis, electron microscope analysis, , in order to understand and define the properties of See also List of surface analysis methods Metallurgy – the study of metals and their alloys, including their extraction, microstructure and Biomaterials – materials that are derived from and/or used with biological Electronic and magnetic materials – materials such as semiconductors used to create integrated circuits, storage media, sensors, and other Tribology – the study of the wear of materials due to friction and other Surface science/Catalysis – interactions and structures between solid-gas solid-liquid or solid-solid Ceramography – the study of the microstructures of high-temperature materials and refractories, including structural ceramics such as RCC, polycrystalline silicon carbide and transformation toughened ceramics Some practitioners often consider rheology a sub-field of materials science, because it can cover any material that However, modern rheology typically deals with non-Newtonian fluid dynamics, so it is often considered a sub-field of continuum See also granular Glass Science – any non-crystalline material including inorganic glasses, vitreous metals and non-oxide Forensic engineering – the study of how products fail, and the vital role of the materials of construction Forensic materials engineering – the study of material failure, and the light it sheds on how engineers specify materials in their product [edit] Topics that form the basis of materials scienceThermodynamics, statistical mechanics, kinetics and physical chemistry, for phase stability, transformations (physical and chemical) and Crystallography and chemical bonding, for understanding how atoms in a material are Mechanics, to understand the mechanical properties of materials and their structural Solid-state physics and quantum mechanics, for the understanding of the electronic, thermal, magnetic, chemical, structural and optical properties of Diffraction and wave mechanics, for the characterization of Chemistry and polymer science, for the understanding of plastics, colloids, ceramics, liquid crystals, solid state chemistry, and Biology, for the integration of materials into biological Continuum mechanics and statistics, for the study of fluid flows and ensemble Mechanics of materials, for the study of the relation between the mechanical behavior of materials and their 材料科学材料是人类可以利用的物质，一般是指固体。而材料科学是研究材料的制备或加工工艺、材料结构与材料性能三者之间的相互关系的科学。涉及的理论包括固体物理学，材料化学，与电子工程结合，则衍生出电子材料，与机械结合则衍生出结构材料，与生物学结合则衍生出生物材料等等。材料科学理论物理冶金学 晶体学 固体物理学 材料化学 材料热力学 材料动力学 材料计算科学[编辑] 材料的分类按化学状态分类 金属材料 无机物非金属材料 陶瓷材料 有机材料 高分子材料 按物理性质分类 高强度材料 耐高温材料 超硬材料 导电材料 绝缘材料 磁性材料 透光材料 半导体材料 按状态分类 单晶材料 多晶质材料 非晶态材料 准晶态材料 按物理效应分类 压电材料 热电材料 铁电材料 光电材料 电光材料 声光材料 磁光材料 激光材料 按用途分类 建筑材料 结构材料 研磨材料 耐火材料 耐酸材料 电工材料 电子材料 光学材料 感光材料 包装材料 按组成分类 单组分材料 复合材料 [编辑] 材料工程技术金属材料成形 机械加工 热加工 陶瓷冶金 粉末冶金 薄膜生长技术 表面处理技术 表面改性技术 表面涂覆技术 热处理 [编辑] 材料的应用结构材料 信息材料 存储材料 半导体材料 宇航材料 建筑材料 能源材料 生物材料 环境材料 储能材料和含能材料 参考%E6%9D%90%E6%96%99%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6
这项工作的主要焦点将是评估的过渡时间发作对铁铜合金灌木浸渍和h bn微粒子在变压器油。影响中美光伏(压力速度)参数的过渡时间没收多孔轴承与h bn微颗粒在摩擦的研究工作
合金和化合物 320(2001)296-301 的 L 日记/ 位于 / jallcom来自毫克的有希望四个一组的候选人的选择-Mn-(Sc 、 Gd ， Y,q Zr) 为爬的发展-反抗的镁成合金J Gro ¨ bner, R Schmid-Fetzer*Clausthal 的技术上大学，冶金的学会, 罗勃特-科赫-Str。 42, D-38678 Clausthal-Zellerfeld, 德国摘要最近发展毫克-Mn-Sc 的合金在提高的温度出示爬抵抗的相当多增加。努力到更进一步改善财产而且降低被开始对另外的元素成合金的搜寻的高价格 Sc 金属的费用。 Gd 、 Y 和 Zr为这一个目的被考虑。 目标将达成大量的适当坠落改善使用的机械的财产至少贵合金元素附加。 联合元素毫的极大量可能性-Mn-(Sc 、 Gd 、 Y, Zr)和时间和科技实验的费用努力需要系统的预先选定和合金作文。 热力学的状态图表和状态数量计算被运行给选择有希望的候选人的暗示。 一本三个四个一组的优先目录系统被建立: 毫克-Mn-Gd-Sc,毫克-Mn-Sc-Y 和毫克-Mn-Y-以个别合金的分类为基础的 Zr。 大部分允诺是 MgMn1 Gd5 Sc0 。8(wt。%), 但是合金 MgMn1 Gd5 S3 和 MgMn1Y5 S8 也是有希望的。 整个的四个一组毫克-Mn-Y-Zr 的系统被丧失资格因为状态，图表扮演重要角色，那对必需的 microstructural 工程学是有害的。 焦点所在的合金发展在这方法之后避免时间和努力的一个废物。 ??2001 Elsevier 科学 BV 所有的权利保留。 牛鼻子字: 状态图表; 合金发展; 热力学的计算; 镁;锰; 钪 介绍抵抗超过最好商业广告我们 43 在 3508C 的合金和30 MPa[1]最近发展了毫克-Mn-Sc 的合金表演 considera- 努力更进一步改善财产和到在提高的温度 [1] 的 bly 逐渐增加的爬抵抗 降低被开始的搜寻的高价格 Sc 金属的费用最初，调查从二进位的毫克-Sc 的合金开始了。 另外的元素成合金。 Gd 、 Y 和 Zr 被考虑钪为藉着老化变硬被选择因为为这一个目的。 目标将达成一大量在毫克的它的大可溶性和那在适当的坠落后退的可溶性改善机械的财产，降低温度。 事实上, 毫克-Sc 的状态使用至少贵合金元素附加的图表 [2]。 表示 peritectic, 因为他们形成，这是在钆和钇之中的稀有例外被考虑二进位的毫克系统。拜托采纳吧！
Composite Materials (Composite materials), is based on a matrix material (Matrix), a material for the reinforcement (reinforcement) material Performance on a variety of materials in each other, creating synergies, so that the integrated performance of composite materials than the original composition of material to meet a variety of different Matrix material is divided into two major categories of metal and non- Commonly used in metal matrix aluminum, magnesium, copper, titanium and its Mainly non-metallic matrix of synthetic resin, rubber, ceramics, graphite, carbon and so Main reinforcement glass fiber, carbon fiber, boron fiber, aramid fiber, silicon carbide fibers, asbestos fibers, whiskers, wires and other fine-grained and The use of composite materials can be traced back to ancient From ancient times to enhance the use of straw and clay for centuries has been the use of reinforced concrete formed by the two types of composite The 20th century, 40's, due to the needs of the aviation industry, the development of glass fiber reinforced plastic (commonly known as glass fiber reinforced plastic), a composite material from the After the 50's, have developed a carbon fiber, graphite fibers and boron fibers high strength and high modulus 70's a aramid fiber and silicon carbide These high-strength, high modulus fibers with synthetic resin, carbon, graphite, ceramic, rubber and other non-metallic substrate or aluminum, magnesium, titanium and other metal matrix composites, which constitute the composite material [Edit this paragraph] Classification Is a mixture of composite Composite materials into their component metals and metal composites, non-metallic composite materials and metals, non-metallic and non-metallic composite According to their structural characteristics are divided into: ① fiber composite Body will be placed in a variety of fiber-reinforced matrix--《复合材料学报》2004年05期