徐光启一生最大的成就还是在农业方面，他总结了我国古代农业的生产经验，同时吸收了西方的科学技术，编写成了鸿篇巨著《农政全书》，这是一部关于中国古代农业方面的百科全书。反映了明代农业的最新发展。书中介绍了农本，水利农器，树艺蚕桑，种植，牧养等农业的各个方面。集中和保存了我国古代农业的经验，受到了世人的高度评价。
《天工开物》
《农政全书》按内容大致上可分为农政措施和农业技术两部分。 前者是全书的纲，后者是实现纲领的技术措施。所以在书中人们可以看到开垦、水利、荒政等等一些不同寻常的内容，并且占了将近一半的篇幅，这是其他的大型农书所鲜见的。以“荒政”为类，其他大型农书，如汉《氾胜之书》、北魏《齐民要术》，虽然亦偶尔谈及一二种备荒作物，甚至在元王祯《农书》“百谷谱”之末开始出现“备荒论”，但是却不足2000字，比不上《农政全书》。《农政全书》中，“荒政”作为一目，有18卷之多，为全书12目之冠。目中对历代备荒的议论、政策作了综述，水旱虫灾作了统计，救灾措施及其利弊作了分析，最后附草木野菜可资充饥的植物414种。
《农政全书》基本上囊括了古代农业生产和人民生活的各个方面，而其中又贯穿着一个基本思想，即徐光启的治国治民的“农政”思想。《农政全书》共60卷，内容宏富，计有农本、田制、农事、水利、农器、树艺、蚕桑、蚕桑广类、种植、牧养、制造、荒政等12目。全书既大量考证收录前代有关农业的文献，又有徐氏自己在农业和水利方面的科研成果和译述，堪称为当时祖国农业科学遗产的总汇。 徐氏编撰《农政全书》的主导思想是“富国必以本业”，所以他把《农事》三卷放在全书之前。其中《经史典故》引经据典阐明农业为立国之本；《诸家杂论》则引诸子百家言证明古来以农为重；此外兼收冯应京《国朝重农考》，其意皆在“重农”。徐光启的“农本”思想，不但符合泱泱农业大国既往之历史，而且未必无补于今时。当前，农业问题和农民问题仍然是国家决策的重要内容。从这一点出发，徐光启的“农本”思想仍有合理因素可取用于现时。
Adjustment of agricultural structure, characteristics of the western region to speed up the development of agriculture 【Abstract】 implementing the western development strategy and strategic adjustment of agricultural structure for the development of agriculture with characteristics Samangan province have provided favorable opportunities and broader space, this article from the analysis of Gansu Province, the implementation of the importance of agriculture with characteristics and the main features of the market potential of agricultural products start to understand the characteristics of Gansu Province characteristics of agricultural production and put forward the implementation of special agriculture in Gansu Province of the countermeasures and 【Key words】 western characteristic agriculture Gansu province is located in China's western region is a vast region, is included in the national development of the western region the concept of one of 12 provinces and municipalities and autonomous regions, serious soil erosion, land desertification, water shortages, destruction of vegetation, forest grassland degradation Gansu province is a major eco-environmental problems, industrial pollution in the city after-effects of economic Gansu Province, the fragile ecological environment will not only hinder further development of regional economy, but also the future of the living environment has become a major All this has its crux of the problem: the history of long-term low levels of productivity and ecological fragility of both cause and effect; "too much emphasis on food self-sufficiency" model of development led to forest destruction and soil erosion; economic construction does not follow the law of the ecological environment, ecological construction technology support the weak; institutional fragmentation, so that ecological protection and construction of the measures can hardly be Characteristics of agriculture refers to the unique resources, clear regional characteristics, a special product quality and specific consumer market of agricultural Gansu Province, a vast territory, light, heat, water, soil is rich in resources, species diversity, with the development of agriculture with characteristics and potential After years of development, characteristics of Gansu Province has been a foundation of Implementing the western development strategy and strategic adjustment of agricultural structure for the development of characteristic agriculture in Gansu Province provided favorable opportunities and broader At present, we should seize the opportunity, clear thinking, focus, work out measures to speed up the characteristics of agricultural development in Gansu Province 1, the development of Gansu Province, the importance of agriculture with characteristics 1 The development of characteristic agriculture is implementing the western development strategy will focus on the Agriculture is the basis for developing the western region and an important Characteristics of agriculture is the focus of agricultural development in the western Characteristics through the development of agriculture, strengthening infrastructure construction, improve production conditions, enhance productive capacity, can further strengthen agriculture as the foundation of Gansu Province to speed up agricultural and rural economic development pace for the development of Gansu's economy and narrow the gap between east and west to create the 2 is the development of characteristic agriculture in Gansu Province strategic adjustment of agricultural structure of the main direction of The use of Gansu Province, rich in agricultural resources, in line with local conditions and characteristics of agricultural and industrial development, nurturing characteristics with the western industrial belt of agricultural and industrial groups, agricultural resources can achieve a multi-level, multi-channel development and utilization to meet the diversification and high quality market demand is conducive to opening up new market space, Gansu Province, to promote the agricultural structure optimization and Gansu, the main features of the development potential of agricultural products and market demand analysis From the distribution of agricultural products and market demand, both in terms of Gansu Province, with resources and potential for development of agricultural resources are mainly concentrated in the food, medicinal herbs, fruit and livestock products 1, food In 2002 the province's grain sown area of 3943 mu, 83 million tons grain Between regions in food production that there are clear regional differences, good natural conditions in the plain areas and to take intensive intensive methods of production inputs are also relatively large, thus the per capita grain output was significantly higher than other Per capita food expenditure from the situation, the year the total income per capita grain 92 kilograms, 24 kilograms of total Main per capita consumption of 45 kilograms of grain (including 89 kilograms of wheat, representing the main food consumed 37%), 75 kilograms of grain feed, 72 kilograms of seed Help Gansu food consumption is still in a state of equilibrium tightness, food as the mainstay of rural food consumption status has not been any big With the gradual deepening of reform and opening-up and join the WTO, the current international market prices tend to decline, while China's grain production costs are generally upward The short term a significant increase in land productivity may be low, China's comparative advantage in grain production continued to In addition China's wheat import market of the United States and European Union countries in the Uruguay Round negotiations, reached an agreement to reduce subsidies, which means that China can no longer own the market of imports from these relatively low over the past price of wheat to China to take measures to raise the level of food self-sufficiency and reduce food As the grain in Gansu Province larger share of agricultural products, the impact of lower prices to become the province's agricultural prices decline in the overall level of the main 2, economic crops In the economic crops, the potential for greater processing Chinese herbal medicines, medicinal herbs market in the country occupies a pivotal role, medicines rough year more than 11,000 tons, 3270 tons of proprietary Chinese Five Angelica is in Gansu Province is the largest varieties of medicinal herbs, over the years has been in a tight pin, and annual production of more than 4 thousand tons, the volume of 27,300 tons of goods, export volume of 1509 At present, the formation of their own as the mainstay of rural Danggui market Minxian Xiguan, Meichuan, Dangchang hada Shop, of the rationale for Sichuan, Zhangxian Chengguan, Ishikawa, Weiyuan Kawasaki, will be over These markets with other medicines markets outside the network for the promotion of medicines in circulation has played an important Changium Gansu Province is the second largest varieties of medicinal herbs, annual output of more than 14,000 tons, the volume of more than 13,000 tons of goods, with its output accounting for about 70 percent of national output, of which the principal export Radix Hedysari is unique to Chinese herbal medicines in Gansu, the main export to T Rhubarb and liquorice market demand, lack of sales production, prices, market Traditional Chinese Medicine in Gansu Province is the main pharmaceutical products in 2002, the sown area of Gansu Province, 199 million mu of Chinese herbal medicines, the total output 305,800 tons, the annual industrial output value of Chinese medicine to 4 billion yuan, accounting for all the Chinese medicine industry to 40 Medicine more prominent structural contradictions in the economy, small and scattered industrial enterprises, commercial enterprises in Gansu medicine abuse is a significant Most of medicine resources on the supply of raw materials or primary products market, value-added processing and great Gansu medicine market capacity of 20 billion yuan, but in Gansu local market consumption of only 6 million yuan, the market References: 1, "on the characteristics of the western region to speed up the views of agricultural development," the Ministry of Agriculture 12 2, Zhu Xing BAI "developing the western region - agriculture, rural areas and farmers," Economics and Management Press 7 3, reference is LiuXinmao weeks "loess ground green hope" Lanzhou University Press 1 中文大意如下 调整农业产业结构，加快西部地区特色农业的发展 【论文摘要】实施西部大开发战略和农业结构战略性调整，为发展甘省特色农业提供了有利的机遇和广阔的空间，本文从分析甘肃省实施特色农业的重要性和主要特色农产品的市场潜力入手，了解甘肃省特色农业的生产特点，提出了甘肃省实施特色农业的对策与建议。 【关键词】西部 特色农业 甘肃省位于中国的西部，是一片广阔的地域，是被国家划入西部大开发概念的12个省市自治区之一，严重的水土流失、土地荒漠化加剧、水资源短缺、植被破坏、森林草原退化是甘肃省面临的主要生态环境问题，工业污染成为城市发展经济的后遗症。甘肃省脆弱的生态环境不仅阻碍区域经济的进一步发展，而且已经成为未来生存环境的重大隐患。这一切问题都有其症结所在：历史上长期的生产力水平低下与生态脆弱互为因果；“过分强调粮食自给”的发展模式导致森林破坏和水土流失；经济建设不遵循生态环境规律，生态建设科技支撑能力薄弱；制度上条块分割，使生态环境保护和建设各项措施难以落实。特色农业是指具有独特的资源条件、明显的区域特征、特殊的产品品质和特定的消费市场的农业产业。甘肃省地域辽阔，光、热、水、土资源丰富，物种资源多样，具有发展特色农业的优势和潜力。经过多年的发展，甘肃省特色农业已有一定的基础。实施西部大开发战略和农业结构战略性调整，为发展甘肃省特色农业提供了有利的机遇和广阔的空间。当前，要抓住机遇，明确思路，突出重点，制定措施，加快甘肃省特色农业发展 1、发展甘肃省特色农业的重要性 1发展特色农业是实施西部大开发战略的重点任务。 农业是西部大开发的基础和重要组成部分。特色农业是西部农业开发的重点。通过发展特色农业，加强基础设施建设，改善生产条件，提高生产能力，可以进一步加强农业基础地位，加快甘肃省农业和农村经济发展步伐，为发展甘肃经济和缩小东西部差距创造条件。 2发展特色农业是甘肃省农业结构战略性调整的主攻方向。 利用甘肃省丰富的农业资源，因地制宜地发展特色农产品和产业，培育具有西部特色的农业产业带和产业群，可以实现农业资源多层次、多途径的开发利用，满足多样化、优质化的市场需求，有利于开辟新的市场空间，促进甘肃省农业结构的优化和升级。 甘肃主要特色农产品的开发潜力及市场需求分析 从农产品分布特点和市场需求两方面来看，甘肃省具有资源优势和开发潜力的农产品资源主要集中在粮食、药材、果品和畜产品上。 1、粮食作物 2002年全省粮食播种面积3943万亩，粮食总产量783万吨。区域之间在粮食生产上存在着明显的地区差异，平原地区自然条件好，并采取集约化的精耕细作方式，生产性投入也比较大，因而人均粮食产量明显高于其它地区。从人均粮食收支情况看，年内人均粮食收入合计92公斤，支出合计24公斤。人均主食用粮45公斤(其中小麦89公斤，占主食用粮的37%)，饲料用粮75公斤，种籽用粮72公斤。说明甘肃粮食消费仍处于紧度平衡状态，粮食作为农村食品消费的主体地位没有什么大的变化。 随着改革开放的逐步深入及加入WTO，目前国际市场上粮价趋于下降，而我国粮食生产成本总体上则呈上升趋势。短期内土地生产率大幅度提高的可能不大，我国粮食生产的比较优势仍在下降。此外中国小麦进口市场的美国和欧盟各国在乌拉圭回合谈判中达成消减补贴的协议，这意味着中国己不可能再从这些市场上进口过去价格相对较低的小麦，促使中国采取措施提高粮食自给水平，减少粮食进口。由于粮食在甘肃省农产品中所占比重较大，其价格下降成为影响全省农产品价格总水平下降的主要因素。 2、经济作物 在经济作物中，中药材加工潜力较大，在全国药材市场中占有举足轻重的作用，药材年粗加工1．1万多吨，中成药3270吨。五种大宗地道中药材。当归是甘肃省药材的第一大品种，多年来一直处于紧销状态，年产量达84万多吨，商品量73万吨，出口量1509吨。目前己形成以当归为主体的农村市场有岷县西关、梅川，宕昌哈达铺、理川，漳县城关、石川，渭源会川等十多个。这些市场同省外其它药材市场形成了网络，对于促进药材流通起到了重要的作用。党参是甘肃省药材第二大品种，年产4万多吨，商品量3万多吨，其产量约占全国总产量的70%，其中纹当主要提供出口。红芪是甘肃特有的中药材，主要出口台湾。大黄和甘草市场需求量大，产不足销，价格上升，市场前景看好。 中药是甘肃省医药产品的主力，2002年甘肃省中药材播种面积199万亩，总产量58万吨，年中药工业产值达到4亿元，占到全部医药工业的40％。医药经济结构性矛盾比较突出，工业企业小而散、商业企业多而滥是甘肃医药的一个显著特征。大部分药材资源是以原材料或初级产品供应市场，加工增值潜力大。甘肃药材市场容量在20亿元以上，但甘肃本地产品市场的消费量只有6亿多元，市场需求量大。 参考文献： 1、《关于加快西部地区特色农业发展的意见》 农业部 12 2、朱文兴 白明 《西部大开发――农业、农村、农民》 经济管理出版社 7 3、刘兴茂 周述实 《黄土地上的绿色希望》 兰州大学出版社 1
Modern agriculture is composed of three parts: by planting farming and processing of agricultural products, rural modern Logistics industry and services subject to the above three aspects in part can be referred for agricultural Usually, the current agricultural logistics consists of four parts: agricultural production material logistics, including seeds, fertilizer, pesticides, agricultural films, machinery, irrigation, feed, and steel, cement, diesel truck, agriculture, Consumption and export logistics, Rural consumer goods, mainly is the logistics with food, clothing, housing, transportation, such as consumer, The recovery of the renewable material logistics, such as crops straw, scrap metal recycling of waste plastics, paper, recycling, garbage and sewage treatment and comprehensive utilization of According to the national bureau of statistics, 1978, animal husbandry and fishery in China for the first industrial output form 4 million yuan, in 2005 for 4 billion yuan, up by 22 According to the China federation of logistics &purchasing data, agricultural logistics total 1978 for 527 billion yuan in 2006, for the increased 13456 billion yuan, 24 Total retail sales of consumer goods in 1978 county and the 1,053 million yuan, in 2005 for 22082 billion yuan, up 21 Agricultural production material of agricultural production, chemical fertilizer for 869 million tons in 1978, 2005 for 178 million tons, up 6 Along with the development of modern agriculture, especially the construction of new countryside, agriculture logistics market potential demand is bigger and According to DingJunFa introduces, at present agricultural logistics has four features:A WuLiuLiang is The dual economic structure in China, agricultural WuLiuLiang extremely To ensure the 15010 million hectares of crops, the total area of WuLiuLiang fertilizers needed only to 8 million tons in 2006 (SheChun)Two is difficult And industrial products is different, the animal and plant life in the process of logistics packaging, loading and unloading, storage and transportation difficult, there are quite a few cold In the small-scale peasant economy by thousands of agricultural and rural and agricultural production material and daily necessities supply logistics is particularly Three is logistics time and space Due to the agricultural production, consumption, seasonal The local production, Writes and life of industrial consumer goods, including agricultural logistics logistics, recycling in space and time from the requirement of urban industrial logistics Four is a two-way agricultural logistics logistics system, which we often say "industrial and agricultural country town", it is difficult to solve farmers "sell" difficult to Two-way logistics system, not only to solve the commodity flow, constructing agricultural logistics supply chain, and To develop modern agriculture logistics are faced with the problemHave the basic conditions of agricultural logistics development, and not immediately developed, the government needs to promote the idea transformation, needs, and enterprises to participate in the urgent need to develop agricultural logistics into China's agricultural logistics compared with the developed countries have a large gap, this must have a clear One is the lack of national agricultural logistics Modern logistics is of great significance to "agriculture, agriculture, commerce, development and reform commission, ministry of finance, the ministry of railways, All were put forward in his duties within the scope of the policy measures, but the government to increase, and the multiplicity of logistics management Second is the agricultural logistics technology and equipment In cold logistics (from the origin of perishable spoiled food products processing, after acquisition, storage, transportation, wholesale and retail, until the consumer, its each link is always in the low temperature environment of supply chain system) of the special as an example, the relevant departments, due to the lack of cold-chain logistics system, China each year of fruits, vegetables, 25-30% micro-tool general control in developed countries and 5% At present the meat, 80% of 90% of milk and aquatic products, bean is in the state of nature distribution Again with grain logistics, for example, in 2005 national food WuLiuLiang for 170 million tons, including 7 tons for trans-provincial International food logistics generally in bulk grain, but China still mainly by 90% bag food, which makes food logistics cost 10 percentage points higher than developed countries, and slow, loss is Three is the lack of agricultural logistics professional Logistics company basically in operation of industrial and agricultural logistics logistics all depend on own strength to operation, no Due to the agricultural logistics, especially in the more traditional agricultural logistics, agricultural logistics process value-added low In developed countries, agricultural product processing of agricultural product and more than 3-1:1:4, while in China than 1:Four is behind the circulation of rural, low level of logistics, agricultural logistics process supervision, lack of lack of standard, fake and low-quality products to rural, greatly harmed the interests of Likewise, food safety problem seriously damage the interests of urban residents, this kind of situation will inevitably affect the overall urban Implementation of the need to adapt to the modern agriculture agricultural logistics development strategyFirst, strengthen government The government to promote the government, but not for logistics development including create an environment, accelerating the development of logistics In the case of weak agricultural logistics, governments are necessary to But the government departments must form a cohesive force, around a total target to promote, rather than a political disputes over trifles, Such as agricultural logistics planning, construction, increasing agricultural logistics facilities, actively formulate logistics personnel training, logistics industry standard cultivation agriculture, agricultural logistics logistics provider of land policy, tax policy, Second, the establishment of urban and rural integration of logistics Industrial and agricultural country town overall consideration, agricultural logistics operation of integration of four Four plates for agricultural logistics system engineering, indispensable, but different regions, different period can there is light weight, not necessarily co-front-Third, the development of agricultural logistics and Encourage trade system, food system, supply system was established, the postal system of agricultural logistics company, foster private capital, especially the large wholesale market for agricultural products, marketing management, warehousing, wholesalers, agent for logistics companies Agricultural logistics should establish proper division of labor, and different types of supply chain: wholesale market for agricultural products as the core, the implement of agricultural supply chain management, To supply, postal logistics, professional associations, agent as the core, the implementation multiplication agricultural production material supply chain management, With thousands of villages and townships "project", cultivate its business enterprise group, with its proprietary and join the network as the core, the implementation of commodity supply chain management; diversified With food, forestry, SMC, private traders as the core, implementing agricultural recycled materials supply chain Fourth, vigorously develop cold-chain logistics, to ensure food According to the calculation, processing food in the circulation of the cost of logistics cost is 90%, food circulation industry management, technology and efficiency of 90% depends on China should establish cold-chain logistics system as soon as possible, change cold-chain logistics technology, the loss is big, safety Fifth, the establishment of agricultural logistics development financial Mainly used for agricultural logistics infrastructure construction, especially grain reserves logistics system and the important agricultural products wholesale market reform, Agricultural logistics information system and standard system construction, Cold-chain logistics distribution center in central city, emergency logistics and demonstration project, Agricultural logistics technology development promotion, The agricultural products processing value-added and detection system construction, Agricultural logistics talent cultivation and the international Sixth, the transformation of grain logistics According to the actual situation of the origin and XiaoDe import and export, and the construction of storage and market To strengthen the grain logistics process value-added services, training of grain logistics company, increasing grain wholesale market reform and the function of Seventh, establish emergency logistics system For emergency treatment is a systems engineering, logistics is one of the important agricultural logistics, especially, the guarantor necessary for all kinds of food supply, not only have a reserve system, also have a cross-regional sensitive allocations system, as well as various modes of transportation and logistics company operation of logistics Eighth, the construction of financial support system of agricultural The four major state-owned Banks and financial support for agricultural logistics should be clear, Rural credit cooperatives engaged mainly in small and short term loan business, and agricultural logistics, financial conformity to change, Agricultural logistics needs the participation of agricultural insurance, the insurance industry to
[1]费友海 我国农业保险发展困境的深层根源——基于福利经济学角度的分析[J] 金融研究,2005,03:133- [2]宁满秀,邢郦,钟甫宁 影响农户购买农业保险决策因素的实证分析——以新疆玛纳斯河流域为例[J] 农业经济问题,2005,06:38-44+ [3]庹国柱,李军 我国农业保险试验的成就、矛盾及出路[J] 金融研究,2003,09:88- [4]赵莹 准公共物品定义下的农业保险供给[J] 财经科学,2004,04:94- [5]孙蓉,朱梁 世界各国农业保险发展模式的比较及启示[J] 财经科学,2004,05:108- [6]陈璐 农业保险产品定价的经济学分析及我国实证研究[J] 南开经济研究,2004,04:100- [7]庹国柱,朱俊生 关于农业保险立法几个重要问题的探讨[J] 中国农村经济,2007,02:55- [8]张跃华,史清华,顾海英 农业保险需求问题的一个理论研究及实证分析[J] 数量经济技术经济研究,2007,04:65-75+ [9]张跃华,施红 补贴、福利与政策性农业保险——基于福利经济学的一个深入探讨[J] 浙江大学学报(人文社会科学版),2007,06:138- [10]李勇杰 论农业保险中道德风险防范机制的构筑[J] 保险研究,2008,07:67-
……世界现有农耕地共约1424万平方公里，约占陆地面积的10%。从气候、土壤、地形、交通等方面看，农耕地占据的是最好的地方。地球陆地可以生产粮食的地方,从温度看有83%，从雨量看有43%,从地形看有64%，从土质看有46%。但农业生产需要的是多种条件因素的有效配合，将多种因素综合考虑则地球陆地适于农耕的面积就小了。以面积百分率而言，欧洲和亚洲进一步扩大农耕地的潜力最小，中国的潜力也小，南美洲最大。世界总计可耕地最多可占陆地面积的8%（见表）。但这些耕地开垦时每亩所需投资比原有耕地开垦时要大。 农业生态系统负载量在洲际之间差异很大,以每100亩地计算：亚洲负载75人,中国负载1人；欧洲负载36人;北美洲91人；大洋洲96人。农业生态系统的负载量由气候资源、水资源、可耕地面积、耕地已垦率、耕地减少速度、新开垦能力、人口数等因素决定。这些都由长期历史所形成，不是在短期内可以迅速改变的。因此，负载量大的地区应注意克服环境阻力和提高生物潜力，使资源转化为产品（财富）的效率提高，即发挥农业生态潜力。
自己去sciencedirect，springerlink等外文数据库下载啊或者到知网，维普等中文数据库下载很多的，校园网内免费获取校园网外可以利用google学术搜索，有部分能免费下载
石器时代的各种石斧、石锤、木质和皮质的简单粗糙的工具是后来出现的机械的先驱。从制造简单工具演进到制造由多个零件、部件组成的现代机械，经历了漫长的过程。在很多人心目中，中华传统文化似乎缺乏对科学技术的应用，事实上，从公元6世纪到15世纪，中国一直是世界上科学技术最为发达的国家。除了对人类社会发展产生了巨大影响的四大发明之外，很多古代机械发明也为人类社会的现代化进程提供了必要的条件。我国有关机械设计制造技术方面的文献记载主要有：先秦时期《考工记》、元代王祯所著《农书》、明朝宋应星编著的《天工开物》，分别见图1-1中的（a）、（b）、（c）。图1-1 中国早期机械设计制造文献《考工记》，又名《冬官考工记》，是我国现存最早的手工艺技术文献，成书于先秦时期，汉代对其进行整理和编校，并作为儒家经典文籍之一，收录在《十三经》的《周礼》之中。《考工记》记述了我国先秦时期的许多重大科技成就，在中国科技史、中国文化乃至世界文化史上都占有重要地位。元代王祯所著《农书》是一部重要的古代农业科学著作。书中绘制了各种农具与农业机械图谱281幅并加以说明，内容约占全书的五分之四。该书不但编入了较复杂的农业机械，而且对有些已经失传的古代农具也绘出复原图，是对我国古农具记载最完备的著作。1634—1637年，明朝宋应星编著了《天工开物》，记录了许多先进的工艺技术和科学创见。书中记述的许多生产技术一直沿用到近代。《天工开物》是世界上第一部关于农业和手工业生产的综合性著作，它对中国古代的各项技术进行了全面系统的总结，构成了一个完整的科学技术体系，被欧洲学者称为“技术的百科全书”。作为中华科技文明的集大成者，《天工开物》对世界科技发展产生了重大影响，截至1989年，该书在全世界发行了16个版本，印刷了38次之多。但该书在我国曾失传三百余年，直到1926年才由日本传回翻印本。《奇器图说》由德国传教士邓玉函（Johann Terrenz）口译、明代王徵笔述绘图，发行于1627年，是第一部系统地以中文介绍西方机械技术的专著，对明清时期我国的机械发展产生了重大影响，见图1-1（d）。人类成为“现代人”的标志是制造工具，人类发展的历史证明，社会生产创造着人类的社会物质文明，推动了人类社会的发展。据统计，发达国家60%～70%的财富来源于制造业生产的产品。而制造业的主要支柱是机械。机械制造业的水平基本可以代表一个国家的科学技术水平和综合国力。
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或者是SDOL 电子期刊
生物农药 Biological pesticide ,biopesticideThe term biopesticide is often used for microbial biological control agents that are applied in a similar manner to chemical Commonly these are microbial biological insecticides, but there are also examples of fungal control agents, including Trichoderma and Ampelomyces quisqualis (a control agent for grape powdery mildew) Bacillus subtilis are used to control plant Weeds and rodents have also been controlled with microbial Biopesticides are certain types of pesticides derived from such natural materials as animals, plants, bacteria, and certain For example, canola oil and baking soda have pesticidal applications and are considered At the end of 2001, there were approximately 195 registered biopesticide active ingredients and 780 Biopesticides fall into three major classes:Microbial pesticides consist of a microorganism (, a bacterium, fungus, virus or protozoan) as the active Microbial pesticides can control many different kinds of pests, although each separate active ingredient is relatively specific for its target pest[s] For example, there are fungi that control certain weeds, and other fungi that kill specific The most widely used microbial pesticides are subspecies and strains of Bacillus thuringiensis, or B Each strain of this bacterium produces a different mix of proteins, and specifically kills one or a few related species of insect While some Bt's control moth larvae found on plants, other Bt's are specific for larvae of flies and The target insect species are determined by whether the particular Bt produces a protein that can bind to a larval gut receptor, thereby causing the insect larvae to Plant-Incorporated-Protectants (PIPs) are pesticidal substances that plants produce from genetic material that has been added to the For example, scientists can take the gene for the Bt pesticidal protein, and introduce the gene into the plant's own genetic Then the plant, instead of the Bt bacterium, manufactures the substance that destroys the The protein and its genetic material, but not the plant itself, are regulated by EPA Biochemical pesticides are naturally occurring substances that control pests by non-toxic Conventional pesticides, by contrast, are generally synthetic materials that directly kill or inactivate the Biochemical pesticides include substances, such as insect sex pheromones, that interfere with mating, as well as various scented plant extracts that attract insect pests to Because it is sometimes difficult to determine whether a substance meets the criteria for classification as a biochemical pesticide, EPA has established a special committee to make such What are the advantages of using biopesticides?Biopesticides are usually inherently less toxic than conventional Biopesticides generally affect only the target pest and closely related organisms, in contrast to broad spectrum, conventional pesticides that may affect organisms as different as birds, insects, and Biopesticides often are effective in very small quantities and often decompose quickly, thereby resulting in lower exposures and largely avoiding the pollution problems caused by conventional When used as a component of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) programs, biopesticides can greatly decrease the use of conventional pesticides, while crop yields remain To use biopesticides effectively, however, users need to know a great deal about managing How does EPA encourage the development and use of biopesticides?In 1994, the Biopesticides and Pollution Prevention Division was established in the Office of Pesticide Programs to facilitate the registration of This Division promotes the use of safer pesticides, including biopesticides, as components of IPM The Division also coordinates the Pesticide Environmental Stewardship Program (PESP) Since biopesticides tend to pose fewer risks than conventional pesticides, EPA generally requires much less data to register a biopesticide than to register a conventional In fact, new biopesticides are often registered in less than a year, compared with an average of more than 3 years for conventional While biopesticides require less data and are registered in less time than conventional pesticides, EPA always conducts rigorous reviews to ensure that pesticides will not have adverse effects on human health or the For EPA to be sure that a pesticide is safe, the Agency requires that registrants submit a variety of data about the composition, toxicity, degradation, and other characteristics of the pesticide----------------In what is described as an important step toward controlling crop-destroying insects without chemical pesticides, scientists have successfully used genetic engineering to hasten the work of biological pest In two separate experiments, researchers say they removed toxin-producing genes from mites and scorpions and inserted them in viruses that kill insect The toxins paralyzed the insects and prevented them from eating vegetation for much of the time it took the slowly working viruses to kill the Ordinarily, the insects would go on eating crops until they But because they were immobilized, plant damage in one experiment was half what it would otherwise have The United States and British experiments, which both involved the cabbage looper moth, were described in yesterday's issue of the British journal N Biological pesticides are an attractive alternative to expensive and environmentally dangerous chemical pesticides, but so far they have only secured about 1 percent of the worldwide pesticide The slowness of many biological controls, compared with chemical pesticides, is one 'A Long Step' The findings reported today "take the development of effective 'biopesticides' a long step further," two British experts say in a commentary in N They are Michael E Hochberg of the Center for Population at Imperial College and Jeffrey K Waage of the International Institute of Biological Control, both in Ascot, E Chemical pesticides are generally lethal to a broad spectrum of insects, killing beneficial insects as well as But the viruses that kill insect pests are limited to a number of species, or only They do not affect animals, including The new technique makes it possible to produce an efficient, genetically engineered virus aimed at any single pest, said D Lois K Miller, an entomologist and geneticist at the University of Georgia, whose laboratory conducted one She wrote one of the papers in Nature, along with D Michael D T The British experiment was conducted by D Robert D Possee and a number of his colleagues at the Institute of Virology and Environmental Microbiology operated by the National Environment Research Council at Oxford, E Both groups said that the paralyzing toxins added to the viruses were harmless to mice, and by extension to all mammals, but D Miller said that further test would be Both groups also said that insects were unlikely to develop resistance to the genetically engineered "Those insects infected with the virus and that are exposed to the toxin die," said D M "So there is little chance of a resistance being passed on to the next " Many insect species have developed resistance after being exposed for long periods to chemcial pesticides and also to plants into which toxic properties have been An extended period of testing and certification by university, industrial and government scientists will be necessary before the genetically altered viruses can be used commercially in the United S "It will take three to five years to move this through the registration procedures," D Miller Both the American and British experiments involved the larvae of the cabbage looper moth, a pest that attacks a wide variety of plants including cabbage and cabbage relatives, including broccoli and To kill these larvae, both teams of scientists used the same agent, called the Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis Paralyzing the Larvae To paralyze the larvae while the virus was doing its work, the University of Georgia team selected a toxin produced by a tiny mite, Pyemotes tricici, that can immobilize insects 150,000 times the mite's The British team selected a toxin produced by the Algerian The American scientists found that the toxin from the mite reduced the time necessary to bring the plant-eating insects under control by 40 Control was defined as the death or paralysis of 50 percent of the insect