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Abstract: America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into This was an exciting period in the history of American Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High R But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature Keywords: National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature 摘要： 从殖民地时期起，欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期， 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大 影响 。一直到美国独立后，美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要，美国的民族文学开始 发展 。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭， 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期，产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义，和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的 时代 是美国前所未有的文学变动时代，产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量，也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响， 社会 动荡不安，这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面， 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展，创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后，美国人陷入战后的茫然， 美国也开始进入了 现代 文学阶段。 关键词： 民族文学， 浪漫主义， 超验主义， 本土色彩， 现实主义， 现代文学 American is a multi-national Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into This was an exciting period in the history of American Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High R But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature Colonial and early American literature (1) Travelers and Explorers When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second E No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616) Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar (2) Pilgrim settlements Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New W This group was looking for the Jamestown However , because of bad navigation, they landed in M They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown They wanted to start a new world governed by the B They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in P This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first A"The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire ” (W P Trent, 1997) The Puritans had several kinds of By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or ” (Wu Dingbo, 4) Another important form of writing from this period is the These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the P People also wrote many But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in G 18th century—the Age of reason (1) The Age of reason In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of Words had never been so useful and so important in human People wrote a lot of political Numerous pamphlets and printings were These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809) It’s the ringing call for the decoration of He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from E And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin F Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First A" a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and (2) Early National Literature During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“ 放不下了，后面还有，在下面的网站里。满意拿分
我是外语学院的，我们经常搞这些，记得上铺写过这么一篇，给分吧，我晚上问问
Abstract: America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into This was an exciting period in the history of American Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High R But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature Keywords: National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature 摘要： 从殖民地时期起，欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期， 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大 影响 。一直到美国独立后，美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要，美国的民族文学开始 发展 。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭， 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期，产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义，和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的 时代 是美国前所未有的文学变动时代，产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量，也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响， 社会 动荡不安，这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面， 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展，创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后，美国人陷入战后的茫然， 美国也开始进入了 现代 文学阶段。 关键词： 民族文学， 浪漫主义， 超验主义， 本土色彩， 现实主义， 现代文学 American is a multi-national Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into This was an exciting period in the history of American Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High R But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature Colonial and early American literature (1) Travelers and Explorers When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second E No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616) Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar (2) Pilgrim settlements Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New W This group was looking for the Jamestown However , because of bad navigation, they landed in M They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown They wanted to start a new world governed by the B They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in P This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first A"The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire ” (W P Trent, 1997) The Puritans had several kinds of By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or ” (Wu Dingbo, 4) Another important form of writing from this period is the These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the P People also wrote many But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in G 18th century—the Age of reason (1) The Age of reason In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of Words had never been so useful and so important in human People wrote a lot of political Numerous pamphlets and printings were These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809) It’s the ringing call for the decoration of He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from E And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin F Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First A" a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and (2) Early National Literature During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“ 放不下了，后面还有，在下面的网站里。满意拿分
1南意大利的诺曼征服---------最后的维京征服浪潮 11世纪是西欧封建社会由上升而趋成熟的重要转折时期，诸多社会矛盾凸现，各种民族或政治力量竞相登台，交互影响。前此曾泛滥于大半个欧洲沿海的维金运动虽呈退潮之势，但这些北欧海盗后裔们移居法国诺曼第后依然热情不减，活力充溢，此刻终于再度冲动，北跨海峡，入主英伦，出演了著名的“诺曼征服”的雄壮活剧。与此同时，又南徙意大利，以军事和外交手段，步步为营，兼并蚕食，展开了另一场旷日持久的征服运动，辗转缔造了一个辉煌强盛的西西里王国。 就时间顺序和内容性质而言，诺曼人在南意的活动大致可分三个阶段:一、11世纪上半叶初涉南意，立稳足跟;二、11世纪下半叶至12世纪初吞并南意诸领地，进征西西里，争霸地中海;三、12世纪创建诺曼西西里王国，征服运动达至全盛期。 位于法国西北海岸的诺曼第公国，是10世纪初始建于西欧大陆的第一块稳固的北欧人拓殖地。此后一个多世纪来，诺曼第不仅又陆续吸纳了许多新来的同族移民，而且也在法国当地经济文化氛围的濡染下，迅速迈入封建化历程。 随着相对和平环境下的人口增殖过速，这块偏居一隅的领地显得愈益狭小，不断有人开始向外迁移，以另谋生计。这些流徙于外的人中，不乏破产潦倒者，为了逃避诺曼第公爵的法律约束，也有“被日渐增多的兄弟排挤的无地子弟”。[诺曼第存在诸子均分制的继承传统，受此影响，各子所能分得的土地太少，乃至于一无所有。当时从诺曼第外迁人口的数字，未有准确记载，但估计当不在少数。一般认为，11世纪是西欧从中世纪早期的破坏状态中得到恢复和发展的重要时期，经济和人口都有相当的增长。亨利?皮雷纳甚至把高出生率称作“11世纪的特点之一”，“在这个时期，家庭中人丁兴旺的现象似在贵族中和在农民中一样地普遍。年轻的小伙子到处皆是，他们感到自己的乡土上人满为患，渴望到远方去碰碰运气”。显然，这就从本土社会游离出来了一股焦躁不安的力量。 起初，同MSL交战的西班牙，曾吸引过像罗杰?德托埃斯尼这样的诺曼人骑士前往，但结果并不持久。倒是随后兴起的向意大利方向的冒险，给诺曼人带来了成功与希望。这不仅是因为意大利地处地中海的交通要冲，素来是基督徒去近东朝觐的必经途程之一，而且本身也有不少宗教圣迹，颇具吸引力。更重要的是，意大利气候温和，物阜民丰，其丰沛的文物财富历来受到形形色色外族的觊觎，并成为列强的逐鹿之所。南部意大利当时政局动荡，诸种势力交错击撞，乱象纷呈。罗马教廷以教皇国版图为依托，四出伸手，干预各地世俗事务。拜占廷帝国自查士丁尼时代以来一直在此占有若干块领地，诸如阿普利亚、卡拉布里亚等，派驻总督、军队监管。先后以北非阿格拉布和法蒂玛王朝为后盾的阿拉伯埃米尔们，则仍盘踞着富庶的西西里岛大部分。此外，野心勃勃的神圣罗马帝国的德意志皇帝和伦巴第的大小王公贵宵，也都纷纷插足其中。他们彼此攻伐，战端频起。这种紊乱之局已实际上瓦解了意大利的任何对外防范能力，给外部势力的介人以可趁之机。 诺曼人最初是以朝觐者的身份进人南意的，其巡礼活动包括参拜阿普利亚地区加尔加诺山的大天使圣迈克尔圣迹。据说，1016年，一批40名诺曼人从圣地返回途中，曾帮助击退了一支进攻萨莱诺城的阿拉伯舰队。萨莱诺的伦巴第王公盖伊马尔四世对他们予以挽留，援为己用，并许诺付给薪饷。他还要求派一些诺曼骑士赴其宫廷服役。自此，诺曼人开始同意大利发生了联系。① 另一则报道提到，由首领德朗若率领的一支诺曼人队伍约二百人，在南意加尔加诺山被一位名叫梅莱斯的巴里城市民说动，加人其反抗拜占廷统治的运动。诺曼人于那不勒斯登陆，初战告捷，旋即在坎尼之战(1018年)中为兵力和武器装备均居优势的拜占廷军队所败。1019年，梅莱斯被迫投奔德意志，向神圣罗马帝国皇帝亨利二世求助，不久殁于德皇宫廷。而那些曾跟随梅莱斯的诺曼人，则因未获合法的居留地，不得不流落于南意的山岭溪谷间，或打家劫舍，或替人充当雇佣兵来维持生计。 诺曼人雇佣兵队伍，渐成南意一股不可小觑的特殊势力。他们表面上仰人鼻息，受制于人，替雇主效命征战，实际上却颇具回旋余地，拥有相当的自由度。优良的军事素质和昂扬的士气，往往助其克敌制胜。而南意的各种原有势力，从卡普亚、本尼凡托到萨莱诺和那不勒斯的公侯们，出于自身利害计，往往也在其相互争斗中竞相召请和利用诺曼人雇佣兵，以至这块政治祛码价值骤升，愈发显得举足轻重了。诺曼人深谙此中之道，乐得左右逢源，纵横捭阖，钻营周旋于各方之间，竭力抬高其政治要价，最大限度地为自己谋取好处。南意的权力天平也就随之摇摆不定。 1021~1022年，诺曼人一度加人神圣罗马帝国皇帝亨利二世远征意大利的队伍，但所获不丰。他们像其祖辈当年在法国一样，很快便不满足于仅以金钱和战利品之得作为服役打仗的报酬，而希冀于获取永久性的居留地，建立一个新诺曼第。不久，那不勒斯公爵塞尔吉乌斯因政争中被逐，得诺曼人相助而复政，遂在1029年回赠一块土地，以表谢忱。诺曼人在此建起阿韦尔萨城。这座小城位于那不勒斯和卡普亚之间，起初仅作防御敌对的卡普亚公爵潘杜尔夫四世的一座堡垒，结果却成为诺曼人在南意土地上设置的第一块稳固的定居地。这块以雷努尔夫伯爵为首脑的领地，在法律上曾被视作康拉德二世的一块封土，与神圣罗马帝国维系着名义上的臣属关系。 此后，阿韦尔萨犹如磁石般吸引了一批批诺曼人，从法国络绎涌来。“贫者为摆脱生活困境的愿望所驱使，富者受到希望的激励……阿韦尔萨不受约束的生活准则给那些地方上的亡命徒，给每一个力图躲避上司不公正或公正惩罚的逃亡者提供庇护和鼓舞。”未几，这些外来移民便迅速地在生活方式乃至文化观念上融人了当地社会。 经营南意的诺曼人中，最负盛名而又最具影响力的当推奥特维尔家族诸兄弟:诺曼第科唐坦骑士奥特维尔的坦克雷德有12个儿子，其中3个儿子即长子威廉和德罗戈、翁弗莱，于1036年率领部众首抵南意②。他们最初效命于萨莱诺公爵瓜伊马罗四世，助其拓疆略地，势力逐渐兴起。 自9世纪下半叶西西里岛被阿拉伯人征服以来，拜占廷帝国就一直期盼有朝一日在该岛匡复失土。1038年，拜占廷驻南意的行省总督(Cata-Pan)马尼埃克斯再度组织对西西里的远征。诺曼人受马尼埃克斯召请，投效于他的靡下，战斗中一再显露其过人的勇气和能征惯战的军事素质。他们的先头部队首先在西西里登陆，一举夺占重镇墨西拿。1040年在锡腊库扎交战中，奥特维尔家族的长兄铁臂威廉将该城埃米尔刺翻于马下。拜占廷依靠诺曼人的援助，连克13城，一度重新控制了西西里大部。旋因分配战利品引起的争执，致使诺曼人愤而离去。 奥特维尔家族兄弟返回意大利大陆后，与阿韦尔萨的诺曼人结成联盟，侵扰各地，以报复拜占廷人的背信弃义行为。1042年坎尼之战，他们大败拜占廷军，瓜分所掠之地，随后推举其首领铁臂威廉为阿普利亚伯爵，仍奉萨莱诺公爵瓜伊马罗四世为宗主，以梅尔菲为统治中心。阿韦尔萨的雷努尔夫则分得西博托和加尔加诺山两地。 早期活跃于南意的诺曼人军队，数量有限。吉本说他们上阵时不超过700骑兵、500步兵，却被人夸大为6万之众。可是，其活动能量却颇惊人。他们从已经控制的阿韦尔萨和梅尔菲两据点频频出击，态意扩张。 奥特维尔家族统治的梅尔菲政权，在组织结构上，差不多像是个“自行组建的贵族共和国”。它的最高统治层系由12名经民众推选的伯爵组成，他们的年龄、出身和功业是人们选择的依据。他们各自有特定的领地，所出贡赋分别拨归其用。他们在自己的领地中心还建有城堡，充任其附庸们的领主。12名伯爵在梅尔菲都拥有单独的住房，在那里共同组成二个类似贵族会议性质的军事立法机构(senate)，共理国政。这个立法机构的首席贵族、主管长官和将军，就是拥有阿普利亚伯爵头衔的铁臂威廉。 1046年威廉死后，其二弟德罗戈继任阿普利亚伯爵。同阿韦尔萨的同胞们一样，他也接受了来自神圣罗马帝国的册封，以便给自己披上一件带有保护色的外衣。自此诺曼人在充斥贪婪和阴谋的南意政争里愈陷愈深，“他们既不爱人，也不信任人;既不受人信任，也不被人爱。对王公们的蔑视中搀杂有恐惧情绪，而对本地人的恐惧中又混合着仇视与怨恨。”拜占廷人曾试图说服诺曼人让出在南意的占领地，并以金钱诱使其充当皇室雇佣兵去与波斯作战，但徒劳无功。1051年，亲拜占廷势力刺杀了德罗戈，三弟翁弗莱继立为阿普利亚伯爵。 诺曼人一仍其旧，杀伐掳掠，横行南意各地，他们与日俱增的影响，愈益引起了各方的忧虑和戒备。罗马教皇利奥九世筹划应对之策，欲图联合德皇亨利三世和拜占廷皇帝君士坦丁九世，协力将诺曼人逐出南意，未果。利奥九世只得单枪匹马自领一支临时拼凑的军队去迎敌。 1053年6月18日，教皇兵败奇维塔泰，沦为诺曼人囚虏，不意却出现了极富戏剧性的一幕:诺曼胜利者忽然全体跪倒在他们的俘虏面前，乞求教皇的赐福，并恭敬地释放了他，还“同意将阿普利亚作为教廷的领地”。随后翁弗莱礼送教皇返罗马。教皇接受诺曼人的和解之举，转而捐弃前嫌，化敌为友，以上帝代理人的名义认可了诺曼人的征服活动及其所获成果。 在双方相互承认的基础上，形成了一种近乎结盟的特殊关系。这显然为利害所系，较之中古初期法兰克王室与教廷的关系，不无异曲同工之妙。诺曼人虽虔信基督教，怀有浓烈的宗教热情，但更深悉，要在诸强林立的意大利立稳脚跟，一展宏图，赢取教会的好感和允准，倚恃教皇在道义上和政治上的支持是极为必要的。而另一方面，教皇也同样看重世俗武力的强大作用，欲借诺曼人的刀剑去剪除宿敌，以遂称霸之愿。 拜占廷从8世纪起一直将南意广大地区置于其东正教牧首的管辖范围之内。天主教罗马教廷为扩张其势力，谋求全基督教世界最高主宰的地位，与拜占廷之间就教区管辖权问题屡生嫌隙。诺曼人介入南意，并对拜占廷辖区大刀阔斧地侵袭蚕食，恰恰扰乱了既定政治秩序，客观上替教皇排挤敌手、夺取南意教区两统治权廓清了道路，这无疑成为加速1054年罗马教皇和君士坦丁堡牧首正式决裂的催化剂。 从当年以朝圣者和雇佣兵身份初涉南意，到11世纪中叶崭露头角，占地称侯，并赢得教皇青睐，不过短短三四十年，诺曼人已然大体奠立了自己在南意的政治根基。 ①另说诺曼人初到南意约始于1015年:参阅赫·赫德·德·普·韦利编:《意大闹简史):。罗念生朱海观译。北京:商务印书馆1975年版，上册，第77页。 ②亦说约1035年抵意。参阅《简明大百科全书)编辑部编:《简明不列颠百科全书》，北京?上海:中国大百科全书出版社，1985年，第8卷。“翁弗莱条。 二 11世纪下半叶至12世纪初，是诺曼人在整个南意及周邻地区大举扩展的重要时期。其间，诺曼人首领罗伯特?圭斯卡德及其弟罗杰一世起了十分显著的历史作用。 罗伯特?圭斯卡德是奥特维尔的坦克雷德的第六子。他不仅是勇武俊逸的一介骑士，而且是个精于欺诈蒙谋略的政治老手。“圭斯卡德”为其绰号，意即“狡猾者”。 然而，罗伯特。圭斯卡德的早年生涯并非一帆风顺。他在1047年左右离开诺曼第到意大利，初时仅随身带有5名骑士、30名步兵。在加入南意权力财富再分配的角逐中，作为后来者，他遭到兄长的妒忌和排斥，一度落魄乡野，居无定所，以窃牛劫夺、敲诈勒索为业:直至1053年他参与指挥打败教皇的奇维塔泰之役，非凡的领导才干方得显露。1057年，兄翁弗莱死，罗伯特逐其二子，被国人选立为阿普利亚伯爵和将军。 1059年，他同教皇尼古拉斯二世在梅尔菲达成政教协议，在向异教徒开战的名义下，提出了远征西西里、使西西里重归基督教势力范围的计划。尼古拉斯二世乃正式授封罗伯特以“阿普利亚和卡拉布里亚公爵”头街，并预先许之以西西里。此举标志着“罗马教廷和诺曼人之间正式同盟关系的缔结，”从此诺曼人在南意的统治正式合法化，同时也意味着教廷对南意最高宗主权的确立。 1060年，诺曼人攻陷勒佐，完成了对位于意大利半岛靴尖部分的全部卡拉布里亚的占领，从而获得进攻西西里的最优越的跳板。翌年，诺曼人渡海攻占墨西拿，拉开了旷日持久的西西里征服战的帷幕。他们首先利用岛上阿拉伯埃米尔们的彼此不和，同巴勒莫埃米尔伊本?阿特-西姆纳结盟，使其中立，为夺获墨西拿这第一个进兵据点赢得了机会。从军事上说，此战是两栖登陆作战的一个范例。诺曼人原本擅于骑马陆战，为在登陆后能迅速发挥其战技所长，他们甚至在横渡海峡时使用了专门载运战马的特殊船只。 诺曼人征服西西里的直接指挥者是罗伯特?圭斯卡德之弟罗杰一世，奥特维尔家族十二兄弟中的最年幼者。他于1057年来意大利，旋即参加了攻取卡拉布里亚的战斗。1064年，诺曼人欲乘巴勒莫埃米尔新丧之机，夺取该城，未果。1068年，罗杰一世击败北非齐里王朝派来增援西西里阿拉伯人的军队，占领该岛北部和东部。1072年攻陷巴勒莫，罗杰一世始称西西里伯爵。此后，他又迭克特拉帕尼(1077年)、陶尔米纳(1079年)、锡腊库扎(1085年)、恩纳(1087年)、布特拉(1088年)、阿格里真托(1089年)等地。1091年，诺曼人攻陷诺托，最终完成了对西西里全岛的征服。 耐人寻味的是，以罗伯特?圭斯卡德和罗杰一世的指挥才能及诺曼军队的战斗精神与军事技能，征服西西里这个不大的岛屿何以竟耗费了30年之久? 首先，诺曼人兵力不足。奥特维尔家族本身并没有一支庞大的常备军队可供支配，而主要靠非官方的武装志愿人员，缺乏稳定性。据说，罗杰一世手下服役的骑士不过百名，也有学者认为罗杰的重甲骑兵为几百名，即使加上辅佐人员，亦相当有限。按吉本的说法，罗杰一世初次登上西西里敌岸时仅带了60名士兵。在塞拉米奥平原交战时，他只有136名骑兵。围攻特拉尼城堡时，人稍多，也不过300人。且不论所述有否溢美的成分，但其军队人少，大致是可信的，很多仗往往以寡敌众，以少胜多。所以，在短时期内，尤其在前期力量对比不利时，诺曼人难以组织起持续的大规模攻势，恐怕也是事实。 其次，罗伯特不时受到来自诺曼人内部各种派系的牵制及难题的困扰，包括贵族会议对他权威的挑战，对行动计划的阻挠。翁弗莱之子的复仇密谋，罗伯特的无情镇压和处置，都不免消耗和分散了诺曼人的精力和兵力。 此外，诺曼人还须应付大陆上的其他敌人。与拜占廷、伦巴第人残余势力作战，卷入教皇、德皇间的各种纷争，罗伯特对巴尔干的劳师远征，如此等等。 由于受众多因素的制约，原本不足的兵力更显捉襟见肘。所以，对西西里的征服，用伦西曼的话说，也就成了诺曼人的“一项进展缓慢的事业”。尽管如此，它终究结束了阿拉伯人在西西里长达200年的统治。如果说，当初诺曼人曾在西西里替拜占廷当雇佣兵效过力，为人作嫁衣裳，那末此刻倒实实在在是在给自己打天下了。 与此同时，诺曼人在南意大陆的扩张势头也在逐步推进。1068年占领东海岸的奥特朗托。1071年，进一步拔除了拜占廷帝国在意大利半岛的最后一个据点巴里，将希腊人势力完全排除了出去。1076年末，又赶走伦巴第公爵吉苏尔夫二世，夺占了萨莱诺。嗣后，罗伯特?圭斯卡德终于攫取了由雷努尔夫家族统治的另一块诺曼人领地阿韦尔萨，把整个南部意大利归并于他所代表的奥特维尔家族的旗帜下。 值得一提的是罗伯特与幼弟罗杰一世的关系。其间固然以携手合作时居多，却也基于各自利益划分而时起争端。他们曾因卡拉布里亚的分赃不匀，一度刀兵相向，终以罗伯特被俘、昆仲达成和解而了结。其后，在领地的具体划分上则主要依据“谁征服归谁”的传统原则行事。西西里岛除少数地方外，基本上均为罗杰一世所独占，罗伯特则难以插手，而主要专注于经营大陆事务。奥特维尔家族两个支系日后的势力格局遂由此确立。 罗伯特同南意各种势力的交往，包括与亟须倚重其精神威权的罗马教廷的关系，无不以维护和扩展自身的利益为转移，极具功利性。双方既互为依存，相互利用，又不乏彼此间的冲撞和摩擦，或也关涉到历任教皇的政策、风格乃至个性之别。从总体上说，罗伯特?圭斯卡德时代诺曼人同教廷的关系，堪称是恩怨迭加、悲喜交集。 1073年登位的教皇格雷戈里七世曾力倡教会改革，以扩展教权为己任，以与德皇亨利四世发生激烈的政教之争而闻名于史。初始他也曾不满于诺曼人骚扰南意教会领地的行径数度以开除教籍相惩戒，但后来为集中力量对付德皇亨利四世及其扶立的敌对教皇克莱门三世，乃一反常态，于1080年6月通过《塞普拉诺条约》，同罗伯特?圭斯卡德言和。次年，罗伯特发动对拜占廷的战争，格雷戈里七世则迎合其舆论上的需要，宣布对拜占廷皇帝处以绝罚。罗伯特投桃报李，登船出征巴尔干之际尚不忘安排人员“在必要时协助格雷戈里对付亨利四世”。1084年亨利四世进兵罗马，教皇格雷戈里七世被围困在圣安杰洛城堡。罗伯特应教皇吁请，亲自统兵由巴尔干急返罗马救驾，经激战，赶走德皇军队，救出格雷戈里七世。诺曼人在罗马城内的悠意焚掠也使教皇尽失人心，难以继续留驻。格雷戈里最后只得追随诺曼人南走，客死异地。 罗伯特?圭斯卡德倚恃与教廷的关系，进一步加强了诺曼人在意大利政治生活中的地位，也因此而更深地陷人同神圣罗马帝国和拜占廷帝国争霸的泥淖，并伺机从南意向地中海周边各地进行扩张，从而给这一区域的国际关系造成相当的扰动。1085年，罗伯特?圭斯卡德死于再度出征巴尔干的戎马途中。一度协助其执掌军队指挥权的儿子博希蒙德只得到巴里的一个封邑存身，而阿普利亚和卡拉布里亚公爵的权位却被他的软弱无能的异母弟罗杰?布尔萨所继承。西欧十字军运动初兴，1096年，博希蒙德便怀着去东方夺取更大荣耀、权力和财富的热望，立即振臂响应，踏上了漫漫征途。1099年，他终以赫赫战功在近东攫得一方地盘，做了安条克公国的首脑。 正当博希蒙德忙于向海外用兵之际，其叔罗杰一世却在西西里大胆进击，巩固与扩展着自己的权势。1098年，他被教皇授以教廷使节之衔，遂得以教皇代表的身份号令西西里全部教会。迄1101年死时，罗杰一世在西西里留给后嗣的已是一份颇具规模的政治基业了。 进人12世纪以后，诺曼人在地中海世界的事业，没有在博希蒙德弟、侄掌管的阿普利亚和卡拉布里亚，更没有在他直接控制的安条克公国发扬光大，而是在西西里一系，特别在罗杰一世之子罗杰二世统治时期，随着繁荣强大的西西里王国的创建而达到了鼎盛。 1105年，罗杰二世继任西西里伯爵，年仅十岁，母后萨伏纳的阿德莱德摄政。1112年，罗杰二世年届十七，乃亲自问政。同他那些崇尚武功的前辈相比，他似乎更富于耐心，更注重以政治方式达到自己的目标。1127年，罗杰二世趁堂兄、罗伯特?圭斯卡德之孙威廉死后无嗣，顺势合并了意大利半岛南部的阿普利亚和卡拉布里亚，并逼迫当时的教皇霍诺留二世对这一既成事实予以首肯，封他为公爵。这样，罗杰二世首次将诺曼人在南意的三块领地西西里、阿普利亚和卡拉布里亚统一了起来，并在1130年正式创立西西里王国诺曼王朝(1130一1194)，奠都巴勒莫。 罗杰二世选择此时称王，一则在于他确已实际掌控了足够数量的领地，羽翼渐丰;二来也恰逢当时罗马教廷有内部纷争可资利用，能减少政治上的阻力。1139年，罗杰二世进兵南意，占领那不勒斯，旋于加卢西奥一举击溃教皇军，迫使被俘的英诺森二世承认他的西西里王位。底定南意，是罗杰二世对教廷的一大胜利。罗杰二世治下的西西里王国，行政管理严密有效，经济文化繁盛昌明，外交富于活力，堪称为当时地中海世界政治舞台上的重要角色。 1154年罗杰二世辞世之后，他的子孙威廉一世、威廉二世相继践柞，两人行事风格迥异，或硬朗，或宽和，但都颇见作为。从创建王国的罗杰二世，到威廉一世、威廉二世祖孙三代的统治，为诺曼人在南意征服、立国后所达到的极盛时期，有“西西里历史上的黄金时代”之称。然而高潮后的余波遗绪，却未持续多久。西西里的优越位置和源源不绝的财富，激起列强的贪欲。一场使人眼花缭乱的王室联姻和继承外交，很快使这个诺曼人南意王国易帜变色，改朝换代了。1186年，神圣罗马皇帝红胡子腓特烈成功地使其长子、未来的德皇亨利六世与诺曼西西里王位法定继承人、罗杰二世的遗腹女康斯坦丝公主结为连理。1189年威廉二世一死，亨利六世和康斯坦丝便立即提出西西里王位要求。只因国人厌恶由一位德意志君主来掌权而力加反对，王国权杖才暂时交于威廉一世之侄、莱切伯爵坦克雷德之手。但坦克雷德的统治并不稳固，矛盾重重，1194年碎死后，亨利六世随之挥兵南下，长驱直入，轻而易举地拿下巴勒莫，将西西里王冠戴上了自己的头顶。 名噪一时的西西里诺曼王朝至此终告落幕，王国改弦更张，换上标有德意志霍亨斯陶芬王朝徽记的旗号，西西里的历史揭开了新的一页。 诺曼人从初涉南意时起苦心经营百余年而赢取的这份煌煌基业，不意竟在一场典型的欧洲王室封建联姻的老式政治游戏中倏尔弃失。或出于偶然，却也似乎蕴藉着某种必然性的意味。 诺曼西西里的意义，自然不仅止于是一个王室联姻政治的牺牲品、王朝兴衰长河里泛起的一圈稍纵即逝的泡沫，而在于这个诺曼人国家曾经有过自己的辉煌时代，促进过当时的东西方经济文化交流，书写了地中海史册中不可抹杀的篇章，惟其如此，才显示着她独有的研究价值。
欧洲政治地图欧洲是欧罗巴洲的简称，“欧罗巴”一词据说最初来自腓尼基语的“伊利布”一词，意思是“日落的地方”或“西方的土地”。整个欧洲地势的平均高度为330米，地形以平原为主，南部耸立着一系列山脉，总称阿尔卑斯山系，其中勃朗峰海拔4807米，勃朗峰属法国境内，成为西欧第一高峰。欧洲的河网稠密，水量丰沛。最长的河流是伏尔加河，长3690公里，第二大河是多瑙河，全长2850公里，是世界上流经国家最多的河。欧洲是有常住人口各洲中唯一没有热带气候的一洲，同时寒带气候所占的面积也不大，所以气候温和，降水分布较均。大部分为温带海洋性气候，也有地中海气候，温带大陆性气候，极地气候和高原山地气候等气候。其中温带海洋性气候最为典型。
我是外语学院的，我们经常搞这些，记得上铺写过这么一篇，给分吧，我晚上问问
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Abstract: America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into This was an exciting period in the history of American Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High R But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature Keywords: National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature 摘要： 从殖民地时期起，欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期， 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大 影响 。一直到美国独立后，美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要，美国的民族文学开始 发展 。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭， 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期，产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义，和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的 时代 是美国前所未有的文学变动时代，产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量，也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响， 社会 动荡不安，这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面， 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展，创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后，美国人陷入战后的茫然， 美国也开始进入了 现代 文学阶段。 关键词： 民族文学， 浪漫主义， 超验主义， 本土色彩， 现实主义， 现代文学 American is a multi-national Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into This was an exciting period in the history of American Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High R But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature Colonial and early American literature (1) Travelers and Explorers When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second E No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616) Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar (2) Pilgrim settlements Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New W This group was looking for the Jamestown However , because of bad navigation, they landed in M They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown They wanted to start a new world governed by the B They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in P This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first A"The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire ” (W P Trent, 1997) The Puritans had several kinds of By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or ” (Wu Dingbo, 4) Another important form of writing from this period is the These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the P People also wrote many But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672) Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in G 18th century—the Age of reason (1) The Age of reason In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of Words had never been so useful and so important in human People wrote a lot of political Numerous pamphlets and printings were These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809) It’s the ringing call for the decoration of He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from E And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin F Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First A" a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and (2) Early National Literature During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“ 放不下了，后面还有，在下面的网站里。满意拿分
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学习体会<<中国民族音乐欣赏>> 作者：陈雅 质量推进年来源：本站原创 点击数：2138 更新时间：2006-2-23 中国的民族民间音乐是世界民族音乐之林红的一棵古老而长青的叁天大树，是我们华夏子孙的骄傲。中国的民族民间音乐是浩瀚的大海。仅仅从我们通常所说的民歌、器乐、曲艺音乐、戏曲音乐的数量来看，也是令人惊叹的。据不完全统计，至今已收集到的民歌约有30万首左右。民族民间器乐约有200余种乐器，独奏、重奏、合奏乐曲难以数计，中国的曲艺约有200多个曲种。戏曲约有360多个剧种。曲艺和戏曲都是综合性艺术，音乐是其重要的组成部分之一，同时也是各种剧种、曲种特征和风格的主要体现者。至于这众多的剧（曲）种中丰富多样的剧目、曲目、声腔、板式、行当、流派、唱段、文武场音乐等等。更是难以数计。 产生我国这么丰富的民族音乐的原因有：第一，悠久深厚的历史传统；第二，复杂多样的自然环境；第三，博大的文化背景；第四，众多民族和人口。 包括民歌与歌舞、民族器乐、曲艺音乐、戏曲音乐四章内容。 一、 民族与歌舞 民歌与歌舞是联系在一起的，所以书中也是一起放在第一章一起介绍。民歌和歌舞都来自人民的生活和劳动，这是它们一个很大的特点。民歌的体裁大体分号子、山歌、小调3个大类。号子直接为劳动服务，是在人民体力劳动中编唱的，它的音乐坚实有力、粗犷豪迈，和劳动联系十分密切，音乐节奏和节奏紧密结合。山歌则产生山野劳作中，声调高亢、嘹亮，节奏较自由，具有直畅而自由地抒发感情的民歌。小调是产生在群众日常生活的休息、娱乐、集庆等场合的民间歌曲。中国的歌舞音乐也很丰富，他的音乐特点与小调很接近，只是因为要配合舞蹈动作，常家用更多的衬词、衬腔和重复腔等。歌舞音乐大体分：秧歌类、花鼓类、花灯类、风俗舞类。此外，还有旱船、莲湘、小车、拉花、春牛等歌舞形式及其音乐。二、民族器乐 分类有吹奏、弹拨、拉弦、打击乐器，曲式结构大多以曲牌为基础，段落性很强。三、曲艺音乐 曲艺是一种表演艺术，也是综合艺术，它以讲唱文学为脚本，安排布局，展开情节，汲取各种艺术表现手段。曲艺是叙事性的音乐，是在“演故事”，深受人民群众的喜爱。千百年来，文学、音乐、表演三者在曲艺这一综合体中相铺相成，有机结合，达到了今日曲艺的丰富、成熟的境地。中国曲艺有200多种，分类问题很复杂，一般根据音乐特点分8类：鼓词类、弹词类、道情类、牌子曲、走唱类、琴书类、杂曲类、数唱类；曲艺唱腔体式分曲牌体、主曲体、综合体。曲艺分南北不同，各自有长处，我们熟悉的如北方京韵大鼓、南方评弹。 四、戏曲音乐 戏曲，是一种综有诗歌、音乐、舞蹈等多样表现手段的中国传统戏剧艺术。音乐是戏曲艺术中的一个重要组成部分，包括唱腔和器乐两种成分。中国传统戏曲约有360多个剧种，音乐遗产非常丰富，形态十分复杂。戏曲的艺术特点有综合性、戏剧性、民间性与专业性的结合三点。戏曲的唱腔具有抒情性、叙述性、戏剧性三方面特征。戏曲的器乐特点大多处于伴奏、陪衬的较次要的地位。戏曲的剧种全国性剧种有昆剧、京剧、两种。我对京剧特别喜欢，对其中内容了解较详细。京剧是以皮黄腔为主的全国性戏曲举重之一，约有200年的历史，因形成与北京而得名。由于京剧名师辈出，19世纪后半期至20世纪初，有了谭鑫培等一带新人出现，谭鑫培是这一阶段杰出的代表，他博采众长，继承余、张、程等又有所创新，为京剧老生的一带宗师。这时京剧不仅受群众欢迎，而且得到清王朝统治者的赞赏，逐渐取代了昆曲的地位而影响全国。从此，建国前后，老生有言菊明、谭福英、马连良、周信芳、李少春、杨宝森等；旦角有王瑶卿、梅兰芳、程砚秋、荀慧生、尚小云等；武生有盖叫天、厉慧良等；小生有姜妙香、叶盛兰等；净角有金少山、裘盛戎、袁世海等；老旦有龚云匍、李多奎等；丑角有肖长华、刘斌昆等；琴师有孙佐臣、徐仁沅、王少卿、杨宝忠等。。。。。。他们在各个行当中都有重大建新，在唱腔、表演、念白等方面都有所创新，自成一派，将京剧艺术推到了鼎盛时期。京剧约有1000多个传统剧。故事大多取材于“列国演义”、“西汉演义”、“三国演义”、“隋唐演义”、“西游记”、“杨家将”、“水浒传”、“说岳全传”等，也有从昆剧和其他地方小戏、民间歌舞中移植过来的，范围十分广泛。京剧的唱腔以皮黄腔为主。二黄强苍凉深沉，长于抒发悲愤之情，有正、反二黄之分；西皮腔刚劲明快，长于表现灵活、昂扬、欢快之情。除了皮黄腔外，京剧还有南梆子、四平调、高拨子、吹腔、昆腔和许多民间小调等唱腔。京剧演唱也很讲究，注重按字行腔、要求字正腔圆，声情并茂。京剧器乐文场以京胡为主，辅以月琴、京二胡、小三弦，有时还用笛、笙、唢呐、海笛等；武场有鼓板、大锣、小锣、钹，有时用堂鼓、水钹、碰铃、大饶等。京剧著名的传统剧目有《二进宫》、《玉堂春·三堂会审》、霸王别姬》、《卧龙吊孝》等。其他的戏曲剧种如北方秦腔、晋剧、河北梆子、豫剧、评剧、碗碗剧，南方赣剧、川剧、湘剧、黄梅戏、越剧、湖南花鼓戏、锡剧等，各个戏曲剧种的唱腔都有分别，也各有自己的长处。 学习体会《中国民族音乐欣赏》后，感触颇多，以前我们总是认为欧洲音乐是最优秀的，而我们民族音乐是不足以登入大雅之堂的，现在知道了民间音乐浩瀚如海，并不比欧洲优秀的音乐差了多少，也是那样需要我们努力学习和发扬光大的，我们更应为我们民族音乐能够走向世界多做贡献。
音乐永远是民族文化中的那唯美的一面，在乐器的缓缓鸣奏中，表达的是作者的情感，无形之中乐曲的深处流淌着的是民族文化血脉深处的精髓。。。每每听着古典音乐的响起，那种悠扬，那种独特的中国风，心灵深处的有着不一样的触动，虽然听不出《高山流水》的知音难觅，品不到《春江花月夜》的清丽奇幻；但是依旧为凄凉忧伤的《二泉映月》而伤怀，被《霸王别姬》的悲凉豪迈而震撼。。。。他们再现了古代的情感生活，过往的抑郁悲愤，那时的英雄儿女，跨时代的哲理思考，都是那么地多情，那么的发人深省。 中国民族音乐有悠久的历史传统，在四五千年前的原始氏族社会中，就产生了原始的歌舞和歌曲，到殷周奴隶主统治的时代，音乐文化已经相当发达。两千多年的封建社会中，音乐不断得到发展。在中国历史上曾经多次出现音乐文化繁荣昌盛的时代。中国民族音乐是中华民族传统文化的重要组成部分，它反映出中华民族的伟大精神，体现了中华民族的情感、意志、力量、幻想和追求。 中国民族音乐基本上由宫廷音乐、文人音乐、宗教音乐、民间音乐四部分构成。 宫廷音乐：一部分是典制性音乐，如各类祭祀乐、凯歌乐、朝会乐等；另一部分是娱乐性音乐，如各种筵宴乐、行幸乐。这两大部分音乐体现了宫廷贵族文化的两个侧面，一是皇权至上自我形象的塑造，二是贵族阶层的精神享乐。 文人音乐：文人音乐包括古琴音乐与词调音乐，它与书、绘画、诗词共同构成中国传统文化中独特的文人文化，琴、棋、书、画，琴居首位。古琴音乐追求的是超尘脱俗的意境天人合一的思想，“清、幽、淡、远”的浪漫色彩，这种音乐最符合封建社会的“中和”思想，成为古人修身养性，塑造人格的最好手段。 宗教音乐：一、体现了中国宗教信仰的多元化特点，佛教、道教、基督教、萨满教，在各自的文化基础上宗教音乐各有特征； 二、外来的宗教带来的外来音乐和乐器不断与本土音乐的融和； 三、较浓的民间风格，大量的宗教音乐以民间歌曲为基础加以改动使之仪式 化、教仪化。 民间音乐：民间音乐分为民歌、歌舞、说唱、戏曲、器乐，以综合艺术为主。独特的中国传统文化孕育了独特的民族民间音乐的体裁、形式、风格、内容，成为中国民族音乐的基础。 如今古典民族音乐的现状不容乐观，中国历来重视音乐教育，有着悠久的历史传统。但在普通教育中将音乐作为正规课程列入期间，则是清末才开始的。1898年康有为以“请开学校折”上书光绪帝，提出了废八股遍设学校的主张。戊戌政变后，梁启超等人积极提倡在学校中设立乐歌课。此后几年间，新式学堂陆续开设了唱歌课，从而在普通学校中形成了以教授新式歌曲和欧洲音乐常识为主要内容的音乐教育，至此，学堂乐歌成为我国一个新文化即将实行切换的关键时期。1927年采用德国专业音乐教育体制建立的上海国立音乐院，均依照德国音乐院校的课程内容上课，学生们演奏我国传统乐器也是用现代方法演奏。 当时以西方音乐为主体的中国学校音乐教育虽然对建立和发展近代中国音乐文化起到了重大作用，做出了重大贡献，但由于学校中的音乐教育未能把传承中国音乐作为自己的重要职责，因而对多数教育者来说，接受民族音乐文化的传承受到了相当程度的阻隔和影响。虽然在各个方面做了一些有利措施，但从学校音乐教育的整体来看，民族音乐尚未能取得其应有的主体地位。这不仅对民族音乐文化传承是个沉重的打击,而且对今后的民族音乐教育也产生了重大影响。 由于多年来形成的教育体制和观念及外来文化的侵入，使得我国学校音乐教育与民族音乐教育传承之间存在割裂、脱节现象，这就造成了国民对民族音乐的不重视，而使民族音乐文化处于不断滑坡状态。因此，学校教育应该作为民族音乐文化传承的主要渠道，传承民族音乐文化是学校教育的重大历史使命。 民族音乐作为文化的一个重要组成部分，是富有民族特色的各种文化形式的综和，同时又是各民族在长期历史发展过程中创造出来的。音乐文化里包括了多种文化，涉及到人民生活的各个方面。因为各种类型的民族民间音乐是在劳动中创造出来的,它不仅仅是一种音乐现象,其中也体现了各个时代各个地方的文化、民俗、语言、美学观点，同时也寄托了一种文化的情思,其所涵盖的情感和精神是这个民族的灵魂与思想,是这个民族精神的载体。匈牙利音乐家柯达伊这样说过:“民族传统有机的继承,唯有从我们的民间音乐中才能找到。”意思是说,作为文化的民族民间音乐具有继承的价值，民族音乐教育同时也具有爱国主义教育的积极意义。 音乐教育是教育的一部分，民族文化是文化的一部分，而教育和文化是相辅相成的,没有文化的教育是不可行的,没有教育的文化就失去了它的实际存在价值，教育和文化是不可分割的整体。所以，民族音乐传承与学校的音乐教育是分不开的。 毋庸置疑，民族音乐文化在教育中有着举足轻重的作用，从几千年来的中国音乐史及现代的音乐教育现状看，我国音乐要得到真正的发展和提高，必须以中华民族本土音乐为主，如果把西方或者其他流行音乐当成主流，而将民族音乐作为附庸的话，必然会带来民族音乐衰退乃至消亡。学校教育作为传承文化的重要方式，要使民族音乐文化在学校音乐教育中得以很好地传承，就要强调民族音乐教育在音乐教育中的重要性，所以要加强民族音乐教育，改善教育措施是关键。 我国音乐教育的发展存在着一些不容忽视的问题，传统民间音乐的发展现状不容乐观，就像我们的母亲河每年断流一样，民间音乐中的许多品种也出现了断流，濒临绝灭。流行音乐充斥着中小学音乐课堂，民族音乐教育被忽视。专业艺术院校招生和业余器乐考级中，报考西洋乐器和报考民族乐器的人数惊人的悬殊。更令人痛心的是多数学生都不会欣赏民族音乐的美，甚至对教材中的民族音乐持排斥态度。造成这些现象的原因有很多，用历史追朔法分析这些现象不难发现： （一）近二十年来受外来文化、市场经济的影响，各种媒体播放民族音乐的比例较少，流行音乐所占比例较大，加上港台流行音乐的推波助澜，使得很大一部分学生趋之若鹜。致使我们成长起来的青年一代追星族与歌迷越来越多，而民族音乐的爱好者却越来越少。青年学生只知道四大天王、超级女生，对民族音乐知识可以说了解甚少，说不出几种民族乐器的名称、叫不出几位中国民族音乐家的姓名； （二）应试教育长期不重视音乐教育，音乐课的情况无人问津、无人监督、无人指导音乐教学。致使音乐教育无法执行教学大纲，更无法完成规定的内容。音乐教学科研不足，教学观念陈旧，教学模式没有改变，致使学生对音乐课丧失兴趣。 二、发展民族音乐教育的具体措施 长此以往，没有青少年对民族音乐的喜爱和发扬光大，民族音乐将会失去它存在和发展的基础。因此，“发展民族音乐教育，提高民族音乐素养”显得尤为重要。学校责无旁贷地成了弘扬民族音乐文化、振兴民族音乐的主要阵地。在教学中发挥民族音乐教育的优势，陶冶学生情操，增强民族意识，让绚丽璀璨的民族音乐自立于世界之林，乃是当前音乐教育工作的主要任务。怎样落实呢我认为应主要从以下几点抓起： （一）以情感教育为主线，培养学生对民族音乐的深厚感情。通过学习一些带有典型民族风味的歌曲，在掌握和灌输民族音乐知识的同时，让学生明白音乐离不开民歌，民歌是一切音乐创作的源泉的道理，使学生从心理上崇拜民族音乐，提高学生对民族音乐的感情。我国民歌浩若烟海，内蒙民歌的豪放、辽阔，江南民歌的婉转、秀丽，陕北民歌的高亢、奔放，云南民歌的明丽、清新，新疆民歌的活泼、欢快，无不给人以美的享受，从中得到丰富的体验，体味到各民族的风俗民情和鲜明的地域色彩。学生对这些民歌创作根源的追溯，会对民族音乐产生由衷的热爱之情。有了这样美好的感情，就会对学习民族音乐产生浓郁的兴趣，为学校进一步实施民族音乐教育打下浓厚的情感基础。 （二）以民族音乐的欣赏为契机，增强学生的体验能力，体验民族音乐所塑造的意境，开拓学生的艺术视野，提高学生的艺术感受力、鉴赏力和创造力，以学生自我感受为基础，启发学生展开形象的翅膀，令学生将民乐与自我的情感认识不断协调起来，使民乐的欣赏成为学生情感体验的活动，在此活动中令学生自我振奋、自我感动。教师有意识地选择欣赏曲目，做到有浅到深、由表及里地对学生实施教育。只有这样，学生才能怀着由衷的喜悦去吸收民族音乐的营养，接受民族音乐文化的熏陶。 中国民族音乐走向世界很有市场前景，关键是要有好的作品和市场运作。我认为，当前中国民族音乐的发展存在着创作和市场两个问题，需要下大功夫解决。“中国民族音乐的作品不够丰富制约了其自身的发展。由于民族管弦乐的乐器和编制的特性，你不能用西洋的配器方式来写中国民乐作品，而当代作曲家的作品有许多却还是从西洋乐团的配器移植过来的，这样的作品并不适合民族乐团演奏。民族音乐的市场开发问题也十分明显，从我们在欧洲和美国的演出看，实际上民族音乐有市场，但国内缺少推广民族音乐的机制,没有专门的人才和经纪公司向世界各地推广中国民族音乐。” 古典民族音乐的传承也许还要走很远，但是我们必须不停的寻找契机，为民族的文化作出应有的保护，更要作出应有的创新，让更多的人去接受，去认识我们的音乐文化。
尽管中国民族音乐与流行音乐之间存在着某些矛盾，但是我们却也能发现它们之间一些微妙的联系。首先，流行歌曲脱胎于民歌。也可以这样理解：民歌是过去的流行音乐，流行歌曲就是今天的民歌。如上世纪八十年代初邓丽君演唱的一些歌曲则是由民间小调为素材创作的歌曲。而在其他的流行歌曲中也有相当的体现。由此可以我们知道，民族音乐凝聚着中华民族的伟大精神和民族艺术的精华，体现了中华民族的意志、力量、智慧和追求，是流行歌曲用之不竭的源泉，流行歌曲只有扎根在民族音乐的土壤里才能获得更为顽强的生命力。其次，民歌借流行歌曲元素焕发生机。民族音乐元素越来越被流行歌手所重视，当周杰伦、陶喆、王力宏的流行音乐里开始引用民族元素，当腾格尔红遍大江南北，当“女子十二乐坊”倾倒海外的时候，一些人发出“民族音乐迎来了春天”的欢呼。也就是说，流行音乐用现在的配器手法和演唱方式从另一方面来表现民歌，让更多人重新认识并喜爱古老民族，也使传统民歌的古老生命力焕发生机。很难说中国民族音乐与流行音乐之间的联系是一种必然，也很难给中国民族音乐和流行音乐的关系一个完整的和正确的定位。中国民族音乐存在了数千年，随着历史的变迁以及各个历史时期人们的意识形态不断的发生变化，民族音乐也随着发生变化和发展，而且一直都在扮演着一个非常重要的角色。它不仅反应了不同历史时期人们的精神面貌，也用音乐这个特殊的方式记载着不同历史时期人们的日常生活和人文背景。可以文说，中国的民族音乐经过几千年的发展，已经形成一个特点比较鲜明的体系。而中国的流行音乐尤其是所谓的“新潮音乐”则可以说是在西方强势文化冲击下的派生物，众多音乐人可以借助这种音乐的形式来表现生活和情感，有时也显得很切近人们的生活和情感世界。从当前来看，我国的民族音乐与流行音乐长期来在很大程度上都处于一种相互争斗、相互排斥的状态，而随着各自的生存空间的扩展需要，它们又不可避免的走到了一起，一种相互依存的关系已经慢慢建。立起来。 Baidu文库当今，中国的流行音乐开始与国际接轨，港、台、内地三地的流行音乐差异日益缩小，在这个时期，古今的碰撞、中外的结合都汇集到一起。但受整个社会大环境的影响，中国的流行音乐从商业上看是繁荣的，但是从文化上看，是贫穷的。而少数民族音乐元素与流行音乐的结合更是一个长期的课题，如何把民族的真正变为世界的、把民族音乐元素巧妙地与流行音乐相结合，还需要广大的音乐人不断尝试、共同努力、共同探索，使我国民族化的流行音乐作品在世界乐坛上独树一帜
你是海大的吧，貌似和我选的一样的课，同病相怜啊···