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1\Designing your own panorama, could be each exciting and If you are contemplating such a mission, listed here are some practical ideas and Planning the ProjectPlanning your landscape design is the first and most vital Take the time to assemble the data you will want to make your decisions on the weather you wish to include in your landscape Will you want a deck, patio, foot paths, walkways, a pond? What sort of plants, timber, flowers, and ground cover will you want to use? You need to research books, articles, and landscape design magazines that will help you make these It will pay off in the end by saving you cash, time, and frustration, enabeling you find yourself with a beautifully completed mission to be proud The DesignThe landscape design is your subsequent You will need to make a structure of the realm to be landscaped, as close to scale as possible, and with accurate Many landscape design planning guides that provides you with step-by-step instructions can be found on the internet without spending a dime, and books or eBooks are As soon as your panorama design structure is done you’ll be able to started to position your components on the layout This should be your first or preliminary plan and as you progess, modifications will be transfered to your secondary or updated Altering your thoughts usually is simply After all this is just on paper at this point and you haven’t spent any money or performed any labor Experimenting with a few plans is critical before you come up the final landscape A properly planned landscape won’t ever look the same in numerous Plan your panorama design to change with the You must try to design your landscape as maintenance free as Panorama Design Software programIf it is onerous for you to visualize your finished panorama design by simply taking a look at your format, there is some excellent landscape design software A lot of the landscape design software was originally developed for skilled landscapers, however since has been modified for the beginner who needs to do-it- There are a lot of do-it-yourslef panorama design software program applications out there Panorama design software permits you to see a digital picture of the landscape design and allows you to transfer gadgets round and see the changes you make come to Some software means that you can import a photograph of your property or constructing and designs the panorama across the Most landscape design software packages offer advise on using and putting the numerous completely different components obtainable right now in your landscape A properly designed panorama will all the time change with time, abd a number of the landscape design software program obtainable will mean you can view your panorama because it You may see what it’s going to seem like 5 or 10 years from now when the bushes have grown and the plants GardensMany people prefer to incorparate a garden of their landscape Gardens may be tucked away in the nook of an space, or be the point of interest of the entire panorama Gardens can even be stragecly positioned among the plants, flowers and trees so they mix in with your entire landscape If you like to backyard, dont overlook all of the garden design possiblities when planning your landscape If you want extra info with regard to landscape architect los angeles, pay a visit to Demitri Sanromartin’s internet site without delay2\We are all ready to invest large amounts of money on landscaping in order to give a face lift to our But we didn’t prune enough or at all when our lawn needed it, making our prized lawns and gardens looking worse than This is the best time to start getting ready and preparing your lawn for beautiful For your garden to have a longer life span, take the following tips into Plenty of individuals would love to have a garden that has a lot of stunning hydrangeas or azaleas growing This particular goal takes a good deal of time and effort, nevertheless, so if you’re amongst those individuals who would like to achieve it, you’ll need to work very hard beginning right Fundamental Garden LandscapingStarting small is without doubt the method to use, particularly if you happen to be a beginner in this particular One of the things you should focus on to start with will be the choice of plants you want to cultivate, flowers, trees, or maybe even It is clearly sensible to decide on plants that do not need an excessive amount of maintenance but when you are confident enough in relation to your gardening skills, roses, orchids, and bonsai trees offer great Getting the soil ready is very important to ensure that you will be able to grow beautiful things in your Using organic fertilizers often is the preferred strategy to use since they will not present any kind of threat to the environment or to human Becoming acquainted with different kinds of organic fertilizers such as horse manure or steer manure can enable you to do a good job in preparing the garden soil for great growing Structures and DecorNaturally, a vibrant and nicely decorated lawn is really what you’ll want which involves various garden landscaping options including water fountains, fencing, and The strategy is to integrate as much of your own personality into your design so as to make it a little haven that is not just lovely to view but also is a quintessential reflection of Outdoor furniture is a very common garden landscaping feature which also happens to be very When you have the area to hold a complete set, you might as well go for it, especially when you want to have a proper place for your guests during the day if the sun is out but it is not too Patio and Garden Lighting FixturesAdequate illumination can be a large part of designing your The patio is where it all begins so you might wish to buy a good set of sconces or wall lights which illuminate the area and highlight its naturally Garden lighting is encouraged not just for functional purposes but also for displaying the best features of the space even at UpkeepTo be able to continue to keep the garden in excellent shape, it is crucial to understand its needs like routine and controlled watering, tilling, mowing, and weed Watering needs to be season and weather appropriate because gardens that are way too dry or too wet will never flourish so make sure that you adjust Mark Vaccaro researches and writes extensively on the best practices in online Some articles that I recommend reading can be found on the topics of 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试论园林植物配置与养护管理 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 段丽倩; 【作者单位】 山西师范大学生物技术与工程学院农艺系 山西临汾; 【文献出处】 化工之友, Friend of Chemical Industry, 编辑部邮箱 2007年 03期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 自然环境; 植物配置; 园艺科学; 【摘要】 园林绿化观赏效果和艺术水平的高低,在很大程度上取决于园林植物环境的选择和配置,因此,应从不同的园林植物特有的观赏性考虑园林植物配置,以便创造优美长效的风景。一个好的园林作品需要植物的合理配置,与植物和环境息息相关,作为一个园林设计者,必须了解植物的生理特点和配置,使它和周围环境相互衬托,形成一件具有观赏价值和经济价值的艺术品,使它给人以现实生活美的享受,因为它是自然风景的再现和空间艺术的展示。 城乡园林绿化植物配置方法探讨 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【英文篇名】 Arrangement Methods of City Landscaping Plants 【作者中文名】 白维滨; 【作者英文名】 Bai Weibin; 【作者单位】 太原市园林建设开发中心; 【文献出处】 山西科技, Shanxi Science and Technology, 编辑部邮箱 2007年 02期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 园林绿化; 植物; 配置方法; 【英文关键词】 landscaping; plant; arrangement method; 【摘要】 城乡园林绿化是园林绿化的重要组成部分,是林业可持续发展的基础,越来越受到人们的关注。文章着重介绍了城乡园林绿化的植物配置方法、原则和具体措施。 【英文摘要】 City landscaping is an important component of landscaping and the base for the sustainable development of forestry,it is gaining more and more This article has introduced some arrangement methods,principles and specific 上海城郊别墅庭园绿化的植物配置初探 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【英文篇名】 Preliminary research on the planting arrangement of villa gardens in Shanghai suburbs 【作者中文名】 曹洪虎; 刘承珊; 【作者英文名】 CAO Hong-hu~(1; 2); LIU Cheng-shan~2(~1College of Agriculture and Biotechnology; Zhejiang University; Hangzhou 310029; China; ~2Shanghai Vocational Technical College of Agriculture and Forestry; Shanghai 201600; China); 【作者单位】 浙江大学农业与生物技术学院; 上海农林职业技术学院 杭州; 上海农林职业技术学院; 【文献出处】 上海农业学报, Acta Agriculturae Shanghai, 编辑部邮箱 2006年 01期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 中国期刊方阵 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 别墅; 庭园绿化; 植物配置; 植物选择; 【英文关键词】 Villa; Garden greening; Planting arrangement; Plant species selection; 【摘要】 结合上海地区的气候、植物、文化等条件,运用群落生态学原理,分析了上海市松江区别墅绿化状况,提出了上海城郊别墅庭园绿化植物配置的原则和方法。 【英文摘要】 Based on the climatic,botanical and cultural conditions of Shanghai area,the situation of garden greening in Songjiang District was analysed,and the principles and methods of the planting arrangement of villa gardens in Shanghai suburbs were put forward in terms of the theory of community 浅谈植物造景与包头市园林建设 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 陈书荔; 李秀琴; 张秀敏; 【作者单位】 内蒙古包头市青山区建设局; 内蒙古包头市青山区建设局 青山区; 【文献出处】 内蒙古林业调查设计, Inner Mongolia Forestry Investigation and Design, 编辑部邮箱 2007年 02期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 植物造景; 园林建设; 包头市; 【摘要】 文章通过包头市容市貌发生的巨大变化,说明了植物造景在现代城市建设中的重要作用 公园绿地植物造景初探 在线阅读 整本下载 分章下载 分页下载 【英文题名】 Study on the Design of Planting Landscape in Public Greenbelt 【作者中文名】 李宏星; 【导师】 邹志荣; 【学位授予单位】 西北农林科技大学; 【学科专业名称】 园林植物与观赏园艺 【学位年度】 2006 【论文级别】 硕士 【网络出版投稿人】 西北农林科技大学 【网络出版投稿时间】 2007-04-04 【关键词】 公园绿地; 植物造景; 植物群落; 生态; 游憩; 【英文关键词】 Public greenbelt; Planting landscape; Plant community; Ecological; recreation; 【中文摘要】 本文通过对公园绿地植物造景与视觉景观形象、环境生态绿化、大众行为心理之间相互关系的分析,探讨公园绿地植物造景的景观、生态与游憩结合的三位一体设计。为城市公共绿地植物造景实现向生态设计方向转化,向可持续发展道路前进提供了新思路,有一定的理论研究意义和实用价值。通过公园绿地植物材料选择和植物比例搭配,在公园绿地植物配置类型设计的基础上提出公园绿地植物造景群落类型设计,分析公园绿地植物景观在空间、时间、思维上的布置,同时以公园绿地的植物为研究对象,从公园绿地植物造景的营建途径进行探讨,通过理论知识的收集总结与实地的调研分析,结合归纳演绎与推理论证等方法,构建比较系统的公园绿地植物造景景观、生态与游憩结合的三位一体设计途径,提出公园绿地植物造景三位一体设计目标。 1公园绿地植物景观、生态与游憩结合的三位一体设计途径: 在植物材料选择方面应合理选择植物组合的生态位,合理选择不同生态效益植物,合理选择耐荫植物,构建复层结构以及合理确定各类植物比例。在植物景观布置方面应在空间、时间、思维轴向探讨植物景观的合理布置。 2公园绿地植物造景目标:将AVC理论即景区吸引力(Attraction)、 【英文摘要】 This article tries to analyze the relationship between vision, ecological design and the masses action of planting design in public greenbelt, and sets forth the way of the planting landscape in public greenbelt, which thinking about of the sight, ecological design and public In order to provide the new theory on the ecological design and continuance theory of planting landscape in urban public greenbelt,this article studies the choosing of plants and deciding the ratio of different 居住区绿地植物造景 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 肖湘东; 陈伟杰; 【文献出处】 湖南林业, , 编辑部邮箱 2006年 02期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 中国期刊方阵 CJFD收录刊 【摘要】 <正>居住区绿地是城市绿地的重要组成部分,而加强居住区绿地建设的首要任务是做好植物造景设计。笔者认为, 植物造景设计应在尊重传统、尊重科学基础上,摒弃原有落后的环境,注重生态及景观设计。居住区的绿地植物造景规划,必须以城市生态系统为基础,注重生态效益。一是提高居住区绿地的绿地率和绿视率。设计时,应合理分配园林诸要素 (植物、道路、建筑、山石、水体)的比例关系,重点突出植物造景,同时充分利用植物覆盖所有可以覆盖的黄土,努力提高单位面积的绿地率和绿视率。二是提 浅谈城市园林植物造景 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【英文篇名】 Preliminary Probing into Landscape Building of Plant in City 【作者中文名】 高祥斌; 【作者英文名】 GAO Xiang-bin(College of Agronomy; Liaocheng University; Liaocheng 252059; China); 【作者单位】 聊城大学农学院 山东聊城; 【文献出处】 江西农业学报, Acta Agriculturae Jiangxi, 编辑部邮箱 2006年 04期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 城市; 植物造景; 存在问题; 建议; 【英文关键词】 City; Landscape of plant; Existing problem; Suggestion; 【摘要】 对现阶段城市植物造景过程中存在问题做了一些总结,并提出几点建议,希望营建富有景感、美感的生态健全的城市园林植物景观。 【英文摘要】 This paper sums up a few problems existing in landscape building of plant in city and proposes some suggestions on building the ecological landscape of plant with scenery views and 浅谈城区植物造景 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 苏小萍; 樊剑锋; 卢国成; 【作者单位】 广东佛山市三水园建绿化工程有限公司; 528100; 【文献出处】 科技资讯, Science & Technology Information, 编辑部邮箱 2006年 26期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 植物造景; 城市住宅区; 布局; 材料选择; 【摘要】 随着现代化城市的飞速发展,城镇环境已成为各方面关注的问题。改善城镇生态环境,是人们共同追求的目标。本文从植物造景的原则;植物造景的布局;植物造景的材料选择三个方面阐述了植物造景的过程以及造景的创新手法。 上海城市绿地植物造景研究 在线阅读 整本下载 分章下载 分页下载 【英文题名】 Studies on Planting Design of Urban Green Space in Shanghai 【副题名】 以延安中路绿地和徐家汇公园为例A Case Study of Yan'an Zhonglu Greenbelt and Xujiahui Park 【作者中文名】 江哲炜; 【导师】 包志毅; 【学位授予单位】 浙江大学; 【学科专业名称】 园林植物与观赏园艺 【学位年度】 2006 【论文级别】 硕士 【网络出版投稿人】 浙江大学 【网络出版投稿时间】 2006-07-24 【关键词】 上海; 城市绿地; 植物造景; 案例; 延安中路绿地; 徐家汇公园; 【英文关键词】 Shanghai; Urban Green Space; Case; Planting Design; Yan'an Zhonglu Greenbelt; Xu Jiahui Park; 【中文摘要】 我国的植物造景具有几千年的悠久历史,素来以崇尚自然、重视传统文化的民族风格屹立于世界园林艺术之林。近几十年来随着西方现代景观设计思想的引入,我国现代植物造景的发展有了长足的进步,却始终未能形成具有中国地域文化特色的现代植物造景风格。 以上海为代表的许多现代城市,处于中西文化交流的前沿,这些城市的植物造景表现出兼收并蓄、广撷博取的海派文化脉络,既借鉴地吸收先进的设计理念,又注重挖掘传统文化的现实意义,并在一定程度上对具有地域文化特征的现代植物造景思想和手法进行了有益的探索,是现代植物造景研究的最佳切入点。 本文在对上海延安中路绿地和徐家汇公园的植物造景进行大量实地调研的基础上,依据植物景观的不同类型选取了19个各具特色的植物造景案例,包括建筑小品植物景观、水体植物景观、道路植物景观、空间植物景观以及主题植物景观等。通过对这些案例进行深入细致的调查实测与研究分析,探讨其有借鉴和参考意义的植物造景思想和手法。由此总结出上海城市绿地植物造景的风格特色、存在的不足之处以及常用植物种类,并针对存在的相应问题提出一些建议。此外,通过研究现代植物造景对传统文化的传承和借鉴,探讨现代植物造景的创作策略和 【英文摘要】 China has thousands of history in planting design and it is outstanding among the world landscape art because of its nationality style is advocation of the nature, valuation of the traditional Due to the introduction of western landscape thoughts in recent decades, the gardening of China got great However, it still havn't form a style which contains Chinese regional culture Many modern cities, like Shanghai, in the foreland of cultural intercommunion between China and W 园林植物与造景 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 徐燕; 薛立; 陈锡沐; 【作者单位】 华南农业大学; 【文献出处】 广东园林, Journal of Guangdong Landscape Architecture, 编辑部邮箱 2005年 02期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 园林植物; 造景; 传统园林; 现代园林; 造景原则; 【摘要】 传统园林植物造景有“自然性、文化性、生态性、精练性”的艺术特征,而现代园林植物造景则注重生态效益和生态景观,注意科学配置耐荫植物、植物造景功能多样化、重写实、大量应用草坪、花卉和植物材料丰富多彩。造景中应用的园林植物有乔木、灌木、草本3大类。园林植物造景原则有根据植物的生态学原理、植物配置的美学原理、多样统一、协调与对比、对称与平衡、均衡、韵律和节奏及统筹安排等原则。植物造景中存在的问题包括绿量与景观质量不成比例、植物造景中形式与功能的冲突、没有对植物造景的效果进行正确预见。最后提出了解决对策。 现代城市园林植物造景特色的探讨 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【英文篇名】 Research on the Characteristic of Landscape Plants Design in Modern Urban 【作者中文名】 韩远彬; 【作者英文名】 HAN Yuan-bin (Lishui University; Lishui; Zhejiang323000); 【作者单位】 丽水学院应用生物系 浙江丽水; 【文献出处】 安徽农业科学, Journal of Anhui Agricultural Sciences, 编辑部邮箱 2005年 08期 期刊荣誉:中文核心期刊要目总览 ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 园林植物; 造景; 特色; 【英文关键词】 Landscape plant; Design; Characteristic; 【摘要】 通过对城市公园、道路、单位附属绿地和居住区植物造景的生态效益、生态景观、造景原则和特色等的剖析,指出了城市园林植物造景的发展方向。 【英文摘要】 In this paper, the ecological benefits, ecological landscape, principle of design and characteristic in the urban park, the road, theunit accessoryand the inhabited district were analyzed, and the developingdirection oflandscape plants design in modern urban was pointed 植物造景在现代城市景观设计中的应用 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【英文篇名】 The Application of Plant Landscaping in the Scenery Designing in Modern Cities 【作者中文名】 武勇; 【作者英文名】 Wu Yong; 【作者单位】 太原市龙潭公园; 【文献出处】 山西科技, Shanxi Science and Technology, 编辑部邮箱 2005年 05期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 植物; 造景; 景观; 设计; 园林; 绿化; 【英文关键词】 plant; landscaping; design; garden; afforestation; 【摘要】 文章通过园林中植物造景的现状,结合现代城市景观设计中建筑与植物造景、室内庭园与植物造景、水体与植物造景、道路与植物造景等例子,说明植物造景在现代城市景观设计中的应用,提高植物造景的科学性与艺术性。 【英文摘要】 This article, after analyzing the current situation of plant landscaping in gardens and considering the examples of scenery designing in modern cities in which plant landscaping is used in architecture, chamber gardens, water and roads, has explained the application of plant landscaping in the scenery designing in modern cities to improve its 论园林中的植物造景 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 李金明; 【作者单位】 怀化市钟坡风景名胜管理处 湖南怀化; 【文献出处】 湖南农业科学, Hunan Agricultural Sciences, 编辑部邮箱 2004年 04期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 园林艺术; 景观; 植物造景; 【摘要】 植物造景有着独特的时空序列节奏和自然美,并有其独立的景观和表现形式。园林植物通过与其它造园景观材料的有机结合,可营造出高深的意境和地方特色。没有植物造景就没有园林艺术。 浅谈现代园林中的植物造景方法 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 周景斌; 吕宁; 李小明; 【作者单位】 杨凌职业技术学院; 杨凌职业技术学院 陕西杨凌 712100; 陕西杨凌 712100; 陕西杨凌; 【文献出处】 陕西林业科技, Shanxi Forest Science and Technology, 编辑部邮箱 2004年 04期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 植物; 观赏特性; 生态要求; 艺术原则; 造景方法; 【摘要】 本文介绍了植物的观赏特性、植物造景时须满足的生态要求和遵循的艺术原则以及现代园林中的植物造景方法。 现代滨水居住小区绿化造景探析 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 陈敏; 秦华; 【作者单位】 西南农业大学园艺园林学院; 【文献出处】 城市开发, Urban Development, 编辑部邮箱 2003年 05期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【摘要】 现代城市房地产的快速发展推动着小区建设的发展,促进现代人对更加清新的环境空间的追求。滨水绿带具有先决的良好环境空间,因此,滨水居住小区即成为现代房地产开发的热点。本文从滨水绿带的开发条件、环境条件等优势出发,结合“以人为本”的原则,从生态科学的角度探讨了现代滨水小区的绿化与景观营建应注意的问题,并提出相应的建议。 居住区绿化植物配置与树种选择 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【作者中文名】 加林; 【文献出处】 湖南林业, , 编辑部邮箱 2006年 05期 谈城市园林中的植物配置原则 推荐 下载阅读CAJ格式全文 下载阅读PDF格式全文 【英文篇名】 Discussion on design principles for plant disposition in urban landscape architecture 【作者中文名】 刘谊; 凌玲; 罗明哲; 【作者英文名】 LIU Yi~1; LING Ling~2; LUO Ming-zhe~3(Df Environmental Art Design; Zhengzhou University of Light Industry; Zhengzhou 450002; China; Df Environmental Art Design; Shenyang University of Aeronautical Industry; Shenyang 110161; Dalian Institute of Forestry Science; Dalian 116039; China); 【作者单位】 郑州轻工业学院环境艺术设计系; 沈阳航空工业学院环境艺术设计系; 大连市林业科学研究所 河南郑州; 辽宁沈阳; 辽宁大连; 【文献出处】 山东建筑工程学院学报, Journal of Shandong University of Architecture and Engineering, 编辑部邮箱 2006年 02期 期刊荣誉:ASPT来源刊 CJFD收录刊 【关键词】 园林; 植物景观; 植物配置; 【英文关键词】 landscape architecture; plant landscape; plant disposition; 【摘要】 合理的植物配置是科学与艺术的完美结合,本文根据城市园林建设中存在的不足,对植物配置概念进行完善,并分析了配置原则,认为城市园林植物群落的构建应结合植物的形态、习性以及设计要求,遵从“生态学”、“艺术性”、“功能性”原则,才能实现生态、观赏、文化等多种功能,获取最佳综合效益。 【英文摘要】 Rational plant disposition is the combination of science and Based on the problems existed in development of urban landscape architecture,the concept of plant disposition is renewed,and the design principle of plant disposition is It is put forward that plant disposition should be carried out in accordance with ecologic,artistic and functional principle,in order to design the plant community having various functions and getting the most

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linyuzhu313

如果你是在学校,去图书馆(网上)的数据库查询吧。 否则去 中文关键词:绿化+工厂+(园林) 英文关键词: Greening + factory + (Landscape)(仅供参考) 我也不知你具体要哪方面的,哪种内容合适。你就自己去下吧 pdf文档可能更正式一点。下pdf的文档,加个filetype:pdf就可以了。 如:greeen factory landscape filetype:pdf ================================ 《Making a City Green 》一篇关于城市环境的文章 URL 仅仅提供一点思路,希望对你有点帮助……------------------------------------下面是英文的~但不是很多~就1篇agriculture, science and practice of producing crops and livestock from the natural resources of the The primary aim of agriculture is to cause the land to produce more abundantly and at the same time to protect it from deterioration and The diverse branches of modern agriculture include agronomy, horticulture, economic entomology, animal husbandry, dairying, agricultural engineering, soil chemistry, and agricultural Early Agriculture Early people depended for their survival on hunting, fishing, and food To this day, some groups still pursue this simple way of life, and others have continued as roving herders (see nomad) However, as various groups of people undertook deliberate cultivation of wild plants and domestication of wild animals, agriculture came into Cultivation of crops—notably grains such as wheat, rice, corn, rye, barley, and millet—encouraged settlement of stable farm communities, some of which grew to be towns and city-states in various parts of the Early agricultural implements—the digging stick, the hoe, the scythe, and the plow—developed slowly over the centuries, each innovation (, the introduction of iron) causing profound changes in human From early times, too, people created ingenious systems of irrigation to control water supply, especially in semiarid areas and regions of periodic rainfall, , the Middle East, the American Southwest and Mexico, the Nile Valley, and S A Farming was often intimately associated with landholding (see tenure) and therefore with political Growth of large estates involved the use of slaves (see slavery) and bound or semifree In the Western Middle Ages the manorial system was the typical organization of more or less isolated units and determined the nature of the agricultural In Asia large holdings by the nobles, partly arising from feudalism (especially in China and Japan), produced a similar The Rise of Commercial Agriculture As the Middle Ages waned, increasing communications, the commercial revolution, and the rise of cities in Western Europe tended to turn agriculture away from subsistence farming toward the growing of crops for sale outside the community (commercial agriculture) In Britain the practice of inclosure allowed landlords to set aside plots of land, formerly subject to common rights, for intensive cropping or fenced pasturage, leading to efficient production of single In the 16th and 17th horticulture was greatly developed and contributed to the so-called agricultural Exploration and intercontinental trade, as well as scientific investigation, led to the development of horticultural knowledge of various crops and the exchange of farming methods and products, such as the potato, which was introduced from America along with beans and corn (maize) and became almost as common in N Europe as rice is in SE A The appearance of mechanical devices such as the sugar mill and Eli Whitney's cotton gin helped to support the system of large plantations based on a single The Industrial Revolution after the late 18th swelled the population of towns and cities and increasingly forced agriculture into greater integration with general economic and financial In the American colonies the independent, more or less self-sufficient family farm became the norm in the North, while the plantation, using slave labor, was dominant (although not universal) in the S The free farm pushed westward with the Modern Agriculture In the N and W United States the era of mechanized agriculture began with the invention of such farm machines as the reaper, the cultivator, the thresher, and the Other revolutionary innovations, , the tractor, continued to appear over the years, leading to a new type of large-scale Modern science has also revolutionized food processing; refrigeration, for example, has made possible the large meatpacking plants and shipment and packaging of perishable Urbanization has fostered the specialties of market gardening and truck Harvesting operations (see harvester) have been mechanized for almost every plant product Breeding programs have developed highly specialized animal, plant, and poultry varieties, thus increasing production The development of genetic engineering has given rise to genetically modified transgenic crops and, to a lesser degree, livestock that possess a gene from an unrelated species that confers a desired Such modification allows livestock to be used as “factories” for the production of growth hormone and other substances (see pharming) In the United States and other leading food-producing nations agricultural colleges and government agencies attempt to increase output by disseminating knowledge of improved agricultural practices, by the release of new plant and animal types, and by continuous intensive research into basic and applied scientific principles relating to agricultural production and These changes have, of course, given new aspects to agricultural In the United States and other developed nations, the family farm is disappearing, as industrialized farms, which are organized according to industrial management techniques, can more efficiently and economically adapt to new and ever-improving technology, specialization of crops, and the volatility of farm prices in a global Niche farming, in which specialized crops are raised for a specialized market, , heirloom tomatoes or exotic herbs sold to gourmet food shops and restaurants, revived or encouraged some smaller farms in the latter 20th and early 21st , but did little to stop the overall decrease in family In Third World countries, where small farms, using rudimentary techniques, still predominate, the international market has had less effect on the internal economy and the supply of Most of the governments of the world face their own type of farm problem, and the attempted solutions vary as much as does agriculture The modern world includes areas where specialization and conservation have been highly refined, such as Denmark, as well as areas such as N Brazil and parts of Africa, where forest peoples still employ “slash-and-burn” agriculture—cutting down and burning trees, exhausting the ash-enriched soil, and then moving to a new In other regions, notably SE Asia, dense population and very small holdings necessitate intensive cultivation, using people and animals but few machines; here the yield is low in relation to energy In many countries extensive government programs control the planning, financing, and regulation of Agriculture is still the occupation of almost 50% of the world's population, but the numbers vary from less than 3% in industrialized countries to over 60% in Third World

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