西方经济学史论文

《西方经济思想史》（宋德勇）电子书网盘下载免费在线阅读资源链接：链接： 提取码：dv2n书名：西方经济思想史作者：宋德勇出版社：华中科技大学出版社出版年份：2001-1页数：276内容简介：《西方经济思想史》着重介绍了这一历史时期的著名经济学家斯密、李嘉图、穆勒、门格尔、杰文斯、瓦尔拉、马歇尔和凯恩斯等的经济思想，概述了重商主义、重农学派、奥地利学派、数理经济学和福利经济学等经济学流派的主要理论观点。在介绍过程中，力求客观，尽量减少作者的主观评价，并用现代经济学的理论方法和语言加以解释。书中还对经济学研究方法、各学派和学者之间的关系及历史渊源进行了探讨，揭示了西方经济学的发展脉胳，对历史上的著名经济学家所作的理论创新及其在经济思想史上的历史地位进行了剖析。16世纪至20世纪30年代欧美国家的主要经济理论，就是现代市场经济理论的早期的主要内容，并成为今天的微观经济学、宏观经济学的理论基础。作者简介：宋德勇性别：男出生年月：1966年12月工作单位、职务及职称：经济学系副主任学历、学位：1987年7月，复旦大学经济学院政治经济学专业本科毕业，获经济学学士学位；1990年7月，复旦大学经济学院政治经济学专业研究生毕业，获经济学硕士学位；1998年9月，武汉大学经济学院西方经济学专业研究生毕业，获经济学博士学位。2001，10—2003，9日本神户大学经济学部 博士后工作经历：1990，7---1993，12 武汉工学院社会科学部1994，1----现在 华中科技大学经济学院2001，10—2003，9日本神户大学经济学部 博士后主要研究方向：发展经济学，转型经济学,宏观经济学,区域经济主讲课程：中国改革与发展、经济思想史、宏微观经济学、区域经济学主要著作：(1)《经济转型问题研究》，华中理工大学出版社，2000年版。(2)《西方经济思想史》，华中理工大学出版社，2000年版。(3)《走出低谷之路》，合著，华中师范大学出版社，1994年版。(4)《当代西方经济学》，合著，经济科学出版社，1995年版。主要论文：1，1995年诺贝尔经济学奖获得者卢卡斯对宏观经济学理论的贡献，《世界经济》，1。2，发展中国家农业可持续发展：困境与出路，《世界经济》5。3，海峡两岸经贸关系和大陆工业化，与张培刚教授合著，《经济学家》，1。4，改革以来中国经济发展的地区差距状况，《数量经济技术经济研究》，3。

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely But others don’t agree with the John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher But M Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen However, that will not One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take So the inflation is not good news for JWhat cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $00 bills that are able to buy them If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $ However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of (InflationD, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’ But the price level decreases from P to P’ So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of But in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $0, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $ This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on (InflationD, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of Is deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was So the supply of goods obviously went Therefore, the price level Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be The economy contracted because of lack of People may lose their Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their (InflationD, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest Obvious from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this That would activate the aggregate (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic So the purpose of the policy has not achieved The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the Interest rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange Foreign exchange is one type of financial An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the If the interest rate drops, the return will Therefore, the attraction of the currency is BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate Decreasing exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will It is good for Japanese exports and international Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is As a result, the company profits are So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt- Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 So when the inflation is happening, the price level is Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short

关于加强和改善我国宏观调控的几点思考建立规范完善的宏观调控体系是我国社会主义市场经济体制改革题中应有之意，而且，越是改革日益向纵深拓展，就越需要加强和改善宏观调控。现在，我国已经进入全面建设小康社会、加快推进社会主义现代化建设的新阶段，在这个新的历史时期，如何进一步加强和改善宏观调控，提高宏观调控的科学性、预见性和有效性，对于促进市场经济体制的建立和完善，推动经济健康持续发展，具有重要的理论意义和实践意义。一、科学界定宏观调控宏观调控是指为实现充分就业、物价稳定、经济持续增长、国际收支平衡而由国家运用一定的宏观经济政策对国民经济所实施的总体管理。为廓清宏观调控的边界，有必要区分以下几点。首先，宏观调控不同于政府管制。无论在政界还是在学界，把宏观调控与政府管制混为一谈的现象并不少见。其实，宏观调控属于宏观经济学范畴，而政府管制属于微观经济学范畴，二者的差别至少有以下几个方面uj：第一，对经济干预的层次不同。宏观调控是国家对总量经济的干预，政府管制则是对个量经济的干预。第二，与市场调节的关系不同。宏观调控的主要任务是为市场对资源进行优化配置创造前提，但它本身不是资源配置的方式，而政府管制是不同于市场调节的另外一种资源配置方式。第三，实施的原因不同。要实行政府管制，是因为存在着市场失灵，影响了资源配置的效率。要实施宏观调控，是因为宏观非均衡是市场经济运行的内在必然，当非均衡发展到一定程度，就会影响宏观经济全局，这时就需要实施宏观调控。第四，产生的历史条件不同。政府管制即使在自然经济占主要地位的社会中也曾存在，在古典经济学家的专著中也可以找出有关政府管制的论述。而宏观调控，只是到了一国或一个地区总需求和总供给的非均衡发展成为影响国民经济发展重大障碍问题之后才出现的，是现代市场经济所特有的。其次，宏观调控不同于整顿和规范市场经济秩序。宏观调控与整顿和规范市场经济秩序都是政府行为，但属于不同的范畴。市场经济秩序是指市场经济中规范交易主体、中介主体和政府监管主体行为的法律法规和道德约束体系。所谓市场经济有序，是指各类市场和各市场主体的约束体系健全，各市场主体行为符合法律规范和契约双方共同达成的准则以及社会道德规范的要求，合法利益与行为得到保护，非法行为受到惩罚和社会谴责，市场配置资源的效率最大可能地实现。整顿和规范市场经济秩序重在构建和完善一种约束体系和体制，而宏观调控重在以经济政策改善经济运行质量。良好的市场经济秩序是实施宏观调控的前提，市场经济秩序良好，有助于宏观调控目标的顺利实现，但仍不能把宏观调控等同于整顿和规范市场经济秩序。最后，宏观调控不同于纵向管理和针对重大经济问题的举措。在现实生活中，有一些部门和领导者对宏观调控与纵向管理、宏观调控与针对重大经济问题的举措存在着模糊认识。如有的部门把对其下属部门的管理冠之以宏观调控，把凡是带有全局性质的管理都称为宏观调控，把一些针对重大经济问题的举措也视为宏观调控，其实，宏观调控和纵向管理有着严格的界限。宏观调控可以理解为一种纵向管理，但不是所有的纵向管理都可以称为宏观调控。同样，宏观调控和针对重大经济问题的举措的区别亦比较明显。宏观调控所涉及到的固然是通货膨胀、失业、经济增长等重大经济问题，但并不是所有的重大经济问题都是宏观调控的对象。二、宏观调控应该与时俱进，保持动态调整宏观调控是一个动态调整过程，不可能是一劳永逸、一成不变的，因为经济始终处于不断的变化中，所以，宏观调控也应该密切关注宏观调控环境的新变化，适时进行调整。现在我国经济已经出现了一些新变化：第一，经济开放度进一步提高。作为WTO的正式成员，我国和世界经济的联系和交融进入了一个新的发展阶段，当前正处于进入WTO后最为关键的“过渡期”，一方面，我国经济开放速度将进一步加快，开放程度将进一步提高，另一方面，我国必须利用时问有限的“过渡期”，提高驾驭宏观经济全局的能力，以适应日益加速的开放步伐。由于时间表的限制，与过去20年的“自主开放”相比，其紧迫性将更为突出，刚性将会更强，将会更加“不由自主”。对于在开放型经济深化过程中出现的这种质的变化．宏观调控应给予足够的重视。根据Mundel1．Fleming模型，经济开放必然会对一国宏观调控政策的有效性产生影响，其财政政策和货币政策的自主性将会受到冲击；在利率降低、汇率稳定的情况下，会引起资本外流，国际收支状况恶化；同时，在资本有限流动、汇率固定的情况下，扩张性财政政策导致总需求增加，相应净进口增加，造成贸易逆差，但随着时间的推移，贸易逆差将导致货币供给下降，直至总需求恢复到初始水平。克鲁格曼的“三元悖论”也表述了同样的道理，他认为，一般而言，货币政策的独立性、汇率的稳定性和资本的完全流动性这三个目标不能同时实现，而只能实现其中的两个。目前，我国选择的是货币政策的独立性和汇率的稳定，而对资本流动进行了管制。这意味着，一旦资本流动得不到完全管制，货币政策的独立性就会大打折扣。而实际情况是，虽然我国资本项目不能自由流动，但巨额的“错误与遗漏”数额的存在表明，资本项目一直在变相地实现着国际间的流动。这说明，货币政策独立性的条件还不充分，也为决策层如何处理好开放经济条件下对内平衡的政策限度提出了挑战。第二，宏观调控的运作环境进一步复杂化。我国的市场经济尚属不成熟的市场经济，在经济快速发展中，一些深层次问题和矛盾更为凸现，使得宏观调控的运作环境相对复杂化，可变性大，主要表现：一是经济的市场化程度不够高。从现实经济可以看到，无论是企业还是个人的行为都不尽合理，还没有成为规范的市场经济主体。从企业的经济行为来看，无论是公有产权，还是私有产权，都存在着不清晰或不甚清晰的问题，还没有按市场经济的要求建立起规范的现代企业制度，生产经营行为短期化，产品缺乏竞争力，资源配置和使用效益不高现象十分突出。就个人经济行为而言，作为劳动力，难以完全按照市场经济原则公平自由流动；作为消费者，尚未完全以货币所有者身份进入市场；作为投资者，尚不具备独立的资格自由从事多种生产经营活动。二是市场机制不健全，市场经济秩序混乱，市场信号扭曲，地方保护主义严重，还没有形成全国统一的大市场。这些扭曲现象得不到纠正，宏观调控措施就很难到位。三是经济运行中一些矛盾进一步突出。首先，在出El下降和进口增加的双重压力下，需求不足和通货紧缩压力仍很突出，需求的内在自主增长机制还没有完全形成。其次，城乡居民就业压力持续增长。“十五”期间，城乡每年新增劳动力人数将升到峰值，加上现有的下岗失业人员，城乡每年劳动力供给量都在2200万人以上，而每年新增就业岗位在800万个左右，缺口很大。最后，经济结构不合理的矛盾日趋突出，存量资产结构重组、增量资产结构高效要求更加迫切，地区结构、产业结构优化任务更加繁重 。这些新变化对宏观调控提出了新的要求，要求调控重点、政策搭配等相应进行调整。