西方经济学简史论文

《偷影子的人》 《南渡北归1南渡》。 《刘心武揭秘红楼梦》《文化苦旅》《沉思录》《活着》《中国哲学简史》。《西方哲学史》《伟大的博弈》《经济学原理》《时间简史》《论语》《语言论》《日瓦戈医生》《金锁记》《复活》《呼啸山庄》大学生必读书目100本《偷影子的人》 《南渡北归1南渡》。 《刘心武揭秘红楼梦》《文化苦旅》《沉思录》《活着》《中国哲学简史》。《西方哲学史》《伟大的博弈》《经济学原理》《时间简史》《论语》《语言论》《日瓦戈医生》《金锁记》《复活》《呼啸山庄》

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely But others don’t agree with the John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher But M Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen However, that will not One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take So the inflation is not good news for JWhat cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $00 bills that are able to buy them If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $ However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of (InflationD, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’ But the price level decreases from P to P’ So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of But in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $0, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $ This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on (InflationD, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of Is deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was So the supply of goods obviously went Therefore, the price level Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be The economy contracted because of lack of People may lose their Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their (InflationD, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest Obvious from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this That would activate the aggregate (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic So the purpose of the policy has not achieved The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the Interest rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange Foreign exchange is one type of financial An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the If the interest rate drops, the return will Therefore, the attraction of the currency is BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate Decreasing exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will It is good for Japanese exports and international Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is As a result, the company profits are So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt- Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 So when the inflation is happening, the price level is Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short

摘要：就业是民生之本，是人们改善生活条件的基本前提和途径，历来都是各国经济社会发展中的重大问题。中国由于人口基数大，劳动力的无限供给和就业岗位严重不足之间的矛盾是最严峻的问题，解决好劳动就业问题其意义极为重大。不仅涉及到求职者的工作安置和许多家庭的切身利益，还关系到经济发展和社会的稳定和谐。回顾西方经济学主要的就业理论，提出这些理论对我国的启示，再结合我国实际情况加以深化认识和借鉴，进而寻求解决我国就业矛盾的有效途径。　　关键词：就业理论；就业问题；借鉴　　一、引言　　我国经济连续多年高速增长，近几年经济增长率都在10%左右，是世界上经济发展最快的国家之一，但是，经济的高增长没有带来高就业。进一步讲，就业形势的好坏，与国民经济的发展速度有着密切关系。一般而言，一定的经济增长所带来的就业增长也是一定的，然而我国的经济增长对就业增长的贡献却不是很明显。　　最近十多年来，中国经济高速增长，但就业增长却相对缓慢，中国目前有大量的农村剩余劳动力以及存在大量的大学、大专毕业生面临就业选择，甚至毕业就失业的境况。可以说，中国的就业压力很大，劳动力总量供过于求，局部就业供给不足，结构性矛盾日益突出。　　因而面对着巨大的就业压力，我们应将视野放宽，在立足国情的基础上，充分借鉴西方经济学中有关就业理论研究的成果，解决就业问题，对于中国来说具有非常重要的现实意义。　　二、西方就业理论演进剖析　　就业这一重大的社会经济问题长期以来一直受到西方经济学家的关注，从而形成了各具特色的就业理论。西方经济学家对就业问题的长期研究和探索，形成了适应市场经济需求的多角度、多层次的就业理论。如古典经济学派的就业理论，凯恩斯的充分就业理论，新古典综合学派的就业理论，新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论等。　　（一）古典学派的就业理论　　萨伊定律是古典经济学派就业理论的基石，其基本内涵是供给创造需求。该学派经济学家代表人物有马歇尔、庇古等，他们从完全竞争的市场结构出发，认为市场上产品价格和货币工资可以根据市场供求状况自发调整。劳动供给和劳动需求相互作用决定实际工资和就业水平，供求平衡时的就业量就是充分就业水平。进而认为，只要不存在工资刚性，工资率可以自由伸缩，市场机制能自由的发挥调节作用，可使一切可供使用的劳动力资源都被用于生产，劳动力市场总能达到就业均衡，长期持续的非自然失业不可能存在，存在的只是自愿失业和短期性摩擦性失业。　　他们认为，解决失业问题的办法是消除货币工资的刚性，使货币工资能够随市场的需求而发生相应的变化。古典学派将自由竞争作为前提条件，主张市场调节平衡就业，否定了失业问题的普遍性。但换个角度理解失业的产生仍然是有可能的，失业问题正是竞争不充分所导致的结果，要解决失业问题首先就应该解决劳动力市场竞争的不充分问题。　　（二）凯恩斯的就业理论　　凯恩斯就业理论是以有效需求原则为核心，认为就业量取决于有效需求。失业之所以持续不断，是由于资本主义社会一般情况均存在“有效需求不足”。即总供给价格和总需求价格达到均衡时的总需求不足，由此造成较多的社会失业，即不充分就业。凯恩斯主义的促进就业理论实际上主张降低工资，即在不降低名义工资的情况下，降低实际工资。但前提是扩大总需求，因为总需求的扩大，必然会导致通货膨胀，工人名义工资不变，但实际工资相对减少。为实现充分就业，凯恩斯认为，必须摒弃自由放任的经济政策，依靠国家干预，提出需求管理政策，从而达到促进生产，增加就业的目的。　　（三）新古典综合学派的就业理论　　20世纪60年代末，各主要资本主义国家的经济相继陷入“滞胀”的困境，凯恩斯理论失灵了。因而以托宾、杜生贝等为代表的新古典综合学派经济学家提出“结构性失业问题”，力图用市场结构的变化来解释失业和通货膨胀并发症，认为是微观市场的不完全性和结构变化引起滞胀。得出结构性失业是因经济结构的变化而引起的劳动力供给和需求的结构失调，结构性失业的存在必然引起失业与工作空位并存。由于强大的工会力量使工资易涨不易跌，所以尽管社会上存在着失业，但货币工资却不下降，而只要存在工作空位，货币工资就会迅速上升。于是，失业与工作空位并存就转化为失业与货币工资上涨并存，进而转化为失业与通货膨胀的并发症。该理论主张从就业内容或就业结构角度来解决结构性失业问题，如政府要指导收入政策，即政府要采取措施限制工资和物价的上升，以缓和通胀；注重完善劳动力市场，缓和因劳工市场技术结构变化造成的失业；适当修改完善失业补助金制度，激励失业者就业。