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building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones he construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings sidential buildings should suit family life ach flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as Housing is the living quarters for human beings he basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion he accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas he “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall he living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove he “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms he “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets he kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations he modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings ally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare 翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。

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哈密赖赖

土木工程（桥梁方向的)外文文献及翻译，桥梁方面的，我整理好发送你。

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佐鉺三鉺洞

土木工程civil Engineering 开题报告Thesis proposal 文献综述Review of the literature

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