土木英语文献

发布时间：2024-05-09 02:27:48

土木英语文献

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Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design, construction, and maintenance of the physical and naturally built environment, including works such as bridges, roads, canals, dams and Civil engineering is the oldest engineering discipline after military engineering, and it was defined to distinguish non-military engineering from military It is traditionally broken into several sub-disciplines including environmental engineering, geotechnical engineering, structural engineering, transportation engineering, municipal or urban engineering, water resources engineering, materials engineering, coastal engineering, surveying, and construction Civil engineering takes place on all levels: in the public sector from municipal through to federal levels, and in the private sector from individual homeowners through to international History of civil engineeringCivil engineering is the application of physical and scientific principles, and its history is intricately linked to advances in understanding of physics and mathematics throughout Because civil engineering is a wide ranging profession, including several separate specialized sub-disciplines, its history is linked to knowledge of structures, materials science, geography, geology, soils, hydrology, environment, mechanics and other Throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisans, such as stone masons and carpenters, rising to the role of master Knowledge was retained in guilds and seldom supplanted by Structures, roads and infrastructure that existed were repetitive, and increases in scale were One of the earliest examples of a scientific approach to physical and mathematical problems applicable to civil engineering is the work of Archimedes in the 3rd century BC, including Archimedes Principle, which underpins our understanding of buoyancy, and practical solutions such as Archimedes' Brahmagupta, an Indian mathematician, used arithmetic in the 7th century AD, based on Hindu-Arabic numerals, for excavation (volume) 土木工程是一门学科，专业工程的设计，施工和维护自然的物理和环境建设，包括桥梁，道路，河渠，堤坝和建筑物的工程协议。土木工程是最古老的军事工程后，工程学科，它被定义为区分军事工程非军事工程。这是传统分解成若干子学科包括环境工程，岩土工程，结构工程，交通工程，市政工程或城市，水资源工程，材料工程，海岸工程，测量，施工工程。土木工程需要在所有层次上进行：在从市政公用部门通过联邦的水平，并在私营部门，个别业主通过向国际公司土木工程的历史土木工程是物理和科学原理的应用，它的历史是错综复杂的联系在物理学和数学的了解整个历史的进步。由于土木工程是一个广泛的行业，包括一些独立的专门的子学科，它的历史是联系在一起的结构，材料科学，地理，地质，土壤，水文，环境，机械和其他领域的知识。在整个历史上最古老的和中世纪的建筑设计和施工进行了如石匠和木匠手艺，上升到建筑师的角色。知识是保留在很少的行会和进步所取代。构筑物，道路和基础设施存在的重复，并在规模上升的增量。对科学方法的物理和数学问题适用于土木工程最早的例子之一是阿基米德在公元前3世纪，包括阿基米德的原则，巩固我们的浮力的认识，如阿基米德螺旋切实可行的解决办法的工作。婆罗门，印度数学家，用在公元7世纪算法的基础上，印度教，阿拉伯数字，挖掘（卷）计算。

土木工程英语文献

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SCC formwork pressure: Influence of steel rebars　　Abstract　　The formwork pressure exerted by a given Self Compacting Concrete (SCC) depends on its thixotropic behavior, on the casting rate and on the shape of the It can moreover be expected that, in the case of a formwork containing steel rebars, these should also play a In first part, the specific case of a cylindrical formwork containing a single cylindrical steel rebar is In second part, a comparison of the theoretical predictions to the experimental measurements of the pressure drop, after the end of casting SCC, was determined and the proposed model was Finally, an extrapolation is suggested of the proposed method to the case of a rectangular formwork containing a given horizontal section of steel rebars, which could allow the prediction of the formwork pressure during 　　Keywords: Fresh concrete; Rheology; Workability; Formwork presure; Thixotropy　　 Introduction　　In most of the current building codes or technical recommendations [1], [2], [3] and [4], the main parameters affecting formwork pressure during casting are the density of concrete, the formwork dimensions, the pouring rate of concrete, the temperature, and the type of 　　However, it was recently demonstrated that, in the case of SCC, the thixotropic behaviour of the material played a major role [5] P Billberg, Form pressure generated by self-compacting concrete, Proceedings of the 3rd International RILEM Symposium on Self-compacting Concrete, RILEM PRO33 Reykjavik, Iceland (2003), 271–[5], [6], [7] and [8] It can be noted that this influence is in fact indirectly taken into account in the above empirical technical recommendations via the effect of temperature and type of the binder, which are both strongly linked to the ability of the material to build up a structure at rest [9], [10] and [11]　　During placing, the material indeed behaves as a fluid but, if is cast slowly enough or if at rest, it builds up an internal structure and has the ability to withstand the load from concrete cast above it without increasing the lateral stress against the It was demonstrated in [7] and [8] that, for a SCC confined in a formwork and only submitted to gravity forces, the lateral stress (also called pressure) at the walls may be less than the hydrostatic pressure as some shear stress τwall is supported by the It was also demonstrated that this shear stress reached the value of the yield stress, which itself increased with time because of Finally, if there is no sliding at the interface between the material and the formwork [8], the yield stress (not less or not more) is fully mobilized at the wall and a fraction of the material weight is supported (vertically) by the The pressure exerted by the material on the walls is then lower than the value of the hydrostatic 　　Based on these results, the model proposed by Ovarlez and Roussel [7] predicts a relative lateral pressure σ′ ( ratio between pressure and hydrostatic pressure) at the bottom of the formwork and at the end of casting equal to:　　(1)and a pressure drop Δσ′(t) after casting equal to:　　(2)where H is the height of concrete in the formwork in m, Athix the structuration rate in Pa/s [10], R is the casting rate in m/s, e is the width of the formwork in m, g is gravity, t is the time after the end of casting and ρ is the density of the 　　As it can be seen from the above, the key point for the pressure decrease is that the shear stress on each vertical boundary of the formwork equals the static yield stress of the It can then be expected that, in the case of a formwork containing steel rebars, the stress at the surface of the rebars should also play a It is the objective of this paper to start from the model developed by Ovarlez and Roussel [7] and extend it to the case of reinforced As the steel rebars should have a positive effect on formwork design ( decreasing the formwork pressure), this could allow for a further reduction of the formwork 　　In first part, the specific case of a cylindrical formwork containing a single cylindrical steel rebar is In second part, a comparison of the theoretical predictions to the experimental measurements of the pressure drop, after the end of casting SCC, is determined and the proposed model is Finally, an extrapolation is suggested of the proposed method to the case of a rectangular formwork containing a given horizontal section of steel rebars, which could allow the prediction of the formwork pressure during 　　 Influence of a vertical steel bar on the pressure decrease inside a cylindrical formwork　　In this paper, SCC is considered as a yield stress material (in first step, thixotropy is neglected), and, for stresses below the yield stress, SCC behaves as an elastic material [7] In the following, cylindrical coordinates are used with r in the radius direction; the vertical direction z is oriented downwards (see F 1) The top surface (upper limit of the formwork) is the plane z = 0; the formwork walls are at r = R The bottom of the formwork is located at z = H An elastic medium of density ρ is confined between the cylindrical formwork and an internal cylindrical steel rebar defined by the boundary (r = rb) For the boundary condition, the Tresca conditions are imposed everywhere at the walls ( it is assumed that the shear stress at the walls is equal to the yield stress τ00 as argued by Ovarlez and Roussel [7] and demonstrated in [8]) In order to compute the mean vertical stress σzz(z) in the formwork, the static equilibrium equation projected on the z axis on an horizontal slice of material confined between two coaxial rigid cylinders can be written:　　 Evaluation of the structuration rate of SCC at rest　　 The vane test　　The yield stress of the studied SCC was measured using a concrete rheometer equipped with a vane The vane geometry used in this study consisted of four 10 mm thick blades around a cylindrical shaft of 120 mm The blade height was 60 mm and the vane diameter was 250 The gap between the rotating tool and the external cylinder was equal to 90 mm which is sufficiently large to avoid any scaling effect due to the size of the gravel (Dmax = 10 mm here)　　Tests were performed for four different resting times after mixing on different samples from the same Of course, working with the same batch does not allow for the distinction between the non-reversible evolution of the behavior due to the hydration of the cement particles and the reversible evolution of the behavior due to thixotropy [9] and [10] It can however be noted that the final age of the studied system ( from the beginning of the mixing step to the last vane test measurement) was of the order of 70 Although Jarny et [13] have recently shown, using MRI velocimetry, that a period of around 30 min exists, for which irreversible effects have not yet become significant compared to reversible ones, the final age of the system in the present study was over this However, no strong stiffening nor softening of the sample was visually spotted nor measured as it will be shown Finally, the data analysis proposed by Estellé et [14] was used for the yield stress 　　 The plate test　　The plate test appears to be a very convenient method to monitor the apparent yield stress evolution of a thixotropic material with It was first developed and used in [8] but more details about its application to other materials than cement can be found in [15]　　The device is composed of a plate rigidly attached below a The plate is lowered into a vessel containing the SCC ( F 2) The apparent mass of the plate is continuously monitored versus time by recording the balance output with a The balance measurements have an uncertainty of ± 01 The vessel was made of smooth PVC and was cylindrical with a diameter of 200 mm and 200 mm in The plate was placed along the cylinder During the tests, the vessel was filled with material to a height of 200 The plate used was 3 mm thick, 75 mm wide and 100 mm It was covered with sand paper with an average roughness of 200 µ The sand paper was used to avoid any slippage between the material and the plate [8] The distance between the plate and the vessel walls was large enough compared to the size of the constitutive particles that the material can be considered as homogeneous [16] and [17] The height H of the immersed portion of the plate was measured before the start of the To ensure that all tests start with the suspension in similar condition, vibration was applied (frequency of 50 Hz, amplitude of 5 mm) for 30 This step is critical in order to ensure tests Variations between tests performed on the same material in the same experimental conditions were then less than 5%　　--------------------------------------------------------------------------------　　Full-size image (22K)　　F Schematic of the plate 　　View Within Article　　The plate test analysis is based on the fact that the slight deformation of the cement paste under its own weight allows for the transfer of a part of this weight to the plate by the mobilization of a shear stress on the This shear stress is equal to the maximum value physically acceptable, which is the yield stress (more details were given in [8], [15], [16] and [17]) The variation in apparent yield stress with time can then be calculated from the measured apparent mass evolution of the plate with time using the following relation:　　(9)Δτ0(t)=gΔM(t)/2Swhere ΔM(t) is the measured variation in the apparent mass of the plate and S is the immerged 　　 Laboratory cylindrical formworks　　Two columns were simultaneously filled with the studied SCC The columns were made of the same PVC covered with the same sand paper as the plate The columns inner diameters were equal to 100 Each column was 1300 mm The thickness of the plastic wall was 3 A 25 mm diameter steel bar was introduced in the second column (F 3)

土木英语论文

土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge Civil Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economyAncient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering Century from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering

恩，我下周就好了。你要不要先看看英文版的？

太长了,我把中英分开吧　　土木工程的英文是Civil Engineering ,直译是民用工程，它是建造各种工程的统称。它既指建设的对象，即建造在地上，地下，水中的工程设施，也指应用的材料设备和进行的勘测，设计施工，保养，维修等专业技术。　　土木工程随着人类社会的进步而发展，至今已经演变成为大型综合性的学科，它已经出许多分支，如：建筑工程，铁路工程，道路工程，桥梁工程，特种工程结构，给水排水工程，港口工程，水利工程，环境工程等学科。土木工程共有六个专业：建筑学，城市规划，土木工程，建筑环境与设备工程，给水排水工程和道路桥梁工程。　　土木工程作为一个重要的基础学科，有其重要的属性：综合性，社会性，实践性，统一性。土木工程为国民经济的发展和人民生活的改善提供了重要的物质技术基础，对众多产业的振兴发挥了促进作用，工程建设是形成固定资产的基本生产过程，因此，建筑业和房地产成为许多国家和地区的经济支柱之一。　　　　古代的土木工程有很长的时间跨度，大致从公元前500年新石器时代出现原始的土木工程活动到16世纪末意大利的文艺复兴，导致土木工程走上迅速发展的道路为止，前后经历了两千多年。在这段时间内，由于科学理论发展及其缓慢，土木工程也没有突破习惯的发展。　　从17世纪中页开始到20 世纪40年代第二次世界大战结束为止的300年间，国外的建筑取得了长足的进步。土木工程进入了定量分析阶段。一些理论的发展，新材料的出现，新工具的发明，都使土木工程科学日渐完善和成熟。到了近代，二战结束之后，许多国家经济起飞，现代科学日益进步，从而为进一步发展提供了强大的动力和物质基础。　　人们生活水平的不断提高，必然要求越来越舒适的居住环境，在这种情况下，建筑的发展直接推动了土木工程的发展。　　总的来说土木工程是一门古老的学科，它已经取得了巨大的成就，未来的土木工程将在人们的生活中占据更重要的地位。地球环境的日益恶化，人口的不断增加，人们为了争取生存，为了争取更舒适的生存环境，必将更加重视土木工程。在不久的将来，一些重大项目将会陆续兴建，插入云霄的摩天大楼，横跨大样的桥梁，更加方便的交通将不是梦想。科技的发展，以及地球不断恶化的环境必将促使土木工程向太空和海洋发展，为人类提供更广阔的生存空间。近年来，工程材料主要是钢筋，混凝土，木材和砖材，在未来，传统材料将得到改观，一些全新的更加适合建筑的材料将问世，尤其是化学合成材料将推动建筑走向更高点。同时，设计方法的精确化，设计工作的自动化，信息和智能话技术的全面引入，将会是人们有一个更加舒适的居住环境。一句话，理论的发展，新材料的出现，计算机的应用，高新技术的引入等都将使土木工程有一个新的飞跃　　English is the Civil Engineering Civil Engineering, civil engineering is literally, it is the construction of the project It means building objects that the construction on the ground, underground, water works facilities, equipment and materials to use in surveying, design construction, maintenance, repair and other professional Civil Engineering with the progress of the human society, has been transformed into large integrated disciplines, it has a number of branches, such as : construction, rail projects, road projects, bridge projects, special project structure, water drainage works, the port project, water, environmental engineering A total of six professional Civil Engineering : architecture, urban planning, civil engineering, construction and environmental engineering equipment, water drainage works and road bridge 　　Civil Engineering as an important foundation subjects, its important attribute : an integrated, social, practicality, Civil Engineering for the development of the national economy and improve the living standards of the people provided important material and technological foundation for the revitalization of many industries played a catalytic role in the construction of fixed assets is a basic production process, the construction and real estate in many countries and regions become a pillar of the economy　　Ancient Civil Engineering has a long time span, roughly 500 years before Christ from the original date in civil engineering activities to the 16 century Italian Renaissance, resulting in the rapid development of the Civil Engineering on the road today, and has experienced more than 2,000 During this period, due to the development of scientific theories and slow, there is no breakthrough in civil engineering 　　Century from 17 pages to 40 years in the 20th century end of the Second World War 300 years, foreign construction made great Civil Engineering has entered a phase of quantitative Some theoretical development, the emergence of new materials, new tools of invention, the Civil Engineering Science is perfection and In modern times, after the end of World War II, many countries economic takeoff, the increasing advances of modern science, so as to provide a powerful impetus to further development and material People's living conditions continue to improve, more and more comfortable living environment for the inevitable in the circumstances, the construction of development directly to the Civil Engineering

有一篇施工监控的论文，你查收一下吧，希望对你有用！

土木工程专业英语文献

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土木英文文献

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Factory constructionFactory construction ,the design and construction of single-storey building of large span often hundreds of meters long ,is a typical task of the civil engineer Though architects often supervise these projects ,they succeed generally because the architect and the civil engineering designer work together ,with understanding of the client’s An earthy A Who was probably a civil engineer , said Art engineer is a man who can do for one dollar what any fool can do for two This is particularly true for civil engineering or building For civil engineering structures like dams , piers , quays , breakwaters , roads or airfields the cost of the structure may well be 90-100 per cent of the total cost For building structures it is usually not more than half , except in non-industrial countries, but for a hospital or similarly complicated building , the proportion of the cost of the structure can easily drop0 to 20 per cent of the cost of the cost of building without its mechanical equipment , because of the high cost of wall tilling , ducting for services , lift structures and so on It is therefore important for engineers to have an idea of the different ways that things can be built in different countries in earth , for example , which was once used in England for buildings of one or two storeys is not now used there , but in hot , dry countries like Arabia or Peru , it is perfectly suitable Large churches have been built of earth in South America ,and earth buildings of four storeys have stood for a century in for example ,Jeddah ,Arabia The Arabian method is of special interest because in many ways it would be a dangerous failure in a wet ,European climate The walls ,about 60 cm thick ,are built of rubble (unshaped stones) laid in a mortar made of mud At intervals of 1-3 m throughout their height they are interrupted by a layer of round poles laid for the full thickness of the wall Where two walls join, these layers of poles cross each other and thus tie the two walls together The few trees which grow in this area of Arabia are too small for construction so all building wood is imported ,and this seeming wasteful use of wood must have been felt to be truly essential ,and seems to have been reliable In a wet climate the timber wound rot in forty years or less and in Britain its use in walls in this way has been forbidden for many years ,For single-story buildings ,mud walls even without stone or wood are completely satisfactory in Arabia and stand for centuries if the part next to the ground is of stone so that it does get washed away by the few rainstorms In dry parts of the United States and Australia ,mud walls are accepted as normal construction and may be called cob In permafrost areas in the Soviet Union or Canada or Alaska ,ice has been used effectively for walling and roofing In Sweden water power stations have been hollowed out of the rock, a method which has been found to be cheaper than normal construction ,Since the power scheme is at the foot of the dam ,it is usually convenient to place it in rock , and this is why it has been found cheap to put the water power plant in a Another unusual method of construction which has been used recently is the use of an air-inflated film A small air blower keeps a slight pressure inside the film The film is anchored to the ground ,and the pressure holds it up very cheaply Balloon structures of this type have been successfully used as temporary structures in Britain to provide urgent protection from the weather They are also suitable for regions which suffer earthquakes For instance in California ,a reservoir was built in about 1962 with a permanent air-inflated roof This roof was not only light and therefore needed no foundations ,needed no foundations ,it was also cheap In fact if an air-inflated roof is not tied down it will lift off the ground and lose air pressure At the edges there is an upward load which must be held down by anchoring or weighting the edges Many thousands of kilometers of road have been built in dry parts of the United States with strengthened soil ,usually called stabilized soil he material used for strengthening the soil can be any cheap local material, the ‘stabilizer’ In an oilfield it can be waste oil Near the sea ,particularly in hot countries, it can be sea water Cement is commonly used in industrial countries ,but clays do not mix with cement ,and for clays it has been found that lime is a good stabilizer To some civil engineers ,metal construction in light alloy or steel is the most interesting of all structural engineering A fairly recent development in Europe is the production of rectangular and square tubular steel section up to about 40 cm square and 1 cm wall They have been available in Europe since about 1965(much earlier in the United States)and will certainly form some of the fine welded structures of the future The circular tubes used in the past produced beautiful welded structures but rectangular sections are much easier to join because their meeting surfaces are flat not curved and their ends need to be cut and welded only One cause of delay in the development of new steels has been that welds have failed ,causing cracking Civil engineers will not need to fear such failures if they make use of the specialist advice which is available in the country where the steel was made International standards for steel are not helpful if the steel s in different countries are the steels in different countries are made from different materials Since this is almost always so, technical advice on welding should be obtained from the country where the steel was made The light alloys, usually based on alumium ,have been so expensive that their use is only justified where weight is all-important as in the long jibs of mobile cranes ,in planes ,in lifting bridges or in the superstructures of ships or For light industry which is not noisy ,the roofing and cladding generally consist of factory-made sheets ,of which hundreds of types exist made of corrugated or troughed of flat steel ,aluminium ,or asbestos-cement he waterproof skin on the outside of some of them may also be of copper sheet ,tarred felt or steel Some of these cladding or roofing units are expensive ,especially the sandwich units which contain a middle layer of highly efficient thermal insulator ,such as expanded polystyrene or glass fibre The insulation must be completely protected from the condensation of water out of the air from the hotter side of the cool insulating material Thus in a hot climate the condensation will be on the inner face of the insulator and in a cold climate on its outer face The insulation must be protected from moisture or it rapidly lose its insulating power as the moisture enters As it loses insulating power ,the condensation will increase ,more moisture will enter and the insulation will enter and the insulation will be completely lost ,quite apart from the dampness in the wall It is therefore essential to prevent not only moisture but also air from entering the insulation and this is done by a waterproof sheet of polythene or metal of other material , called as vapour barrier It must be sealed at the joints to prevent air leaking through and condensation inside The civil engineer should therefore ask whether the cladding is for use in a hot or a cold climate m and the maker will usually be happy to provide a possible buyer with all this information For noisy factories ,such as those which house heavy industry (car factories etc),cladding sheets are not good because noise passes through them Any heavy walling is better because the deadening of sound depends on the weigh of the wall Brickwork has been the unicersal in Britain in the past but modern civil engineering contractors have precast large concrete units of 4m-5m and placed them with powerful cranes Such walls are quickly built provided that the organization of the site is good ,and the cranes are available and able to get to the lifting point, If the units are too large for one crane they are sometimes lifted by two cranes working together The alternative is to reduce the height of the wall unit keeping its length equal to the column spacing, since this construction is simple and looks good If the crane is very small and the units are only about 15 cm high ,it may be advisable to lay a thin mortar joint between the units so as to keep out the wind , For the very large the mortar joint is less important since the joins are It is most important to take some interest in the appearance of concrete walls because the designer’s reputation depends largely on the pleasant appearance of the factory ,and the walls are the immediately noticeable par of it Many satisfactory ways of building concrete precast walling gave been worked out and if the engineer does not wish to think out his own solution he should apply to an architect or concrete specialist for advice Some solutions are exceedingly simple ;for long ,horizontal thin walling units ,the edges can be cut off at 45*(chamfered )to make the horizontal lines show up Large units can be cast with an exposed aggregate surface or with a surface or with a surface that has alternate square of exposed aggregate and ordinary concrete For this sort of treatment ,architectural advice is helpful because of the pattern depends on the size of the squares in relation to the rest of the building Factory design is interesting to most civil engineers because it includes the design of many important services ,and the engineer is the main designer ,not a mere helper as he is for a multi-storey building He must design the roads and the drains ,possibly the water supply and the heating or air conditioning and provide the power and telephone cables and gas pipes If possible he will try at least to get main roads and drains in position before the main construction starts This will make the site much easier to travel over ,and by keeping it driver will probably reduce the damage to vehicles Provided that a factory is of one storey it can usually be well lit from the roof except in hot climates ,but if it is more than one storey high day-lighting of the lower storeys in any large-span building becomes difficult or impossible For this reason ,some US factory designers have built factories without windows ,entirely air-conditioned ,and as spans increase this will become unavoidable for the internal rooms In fact it is now quite common to place bathrooms internally so that they do not waste the valuable space for windows that would be more useful to a living-room In temperate climates, the air-conditioning equipment should be designed to provide cooled air in summer and warm air in winter Roof lighting can be through transparent sheets in an ordinary sheeted sloping roof, or through a saw tooth roof which would be north-facing in northern continents or south-facing in southern A monitor roof enables the lights to be either vertical or on the roof slope and also provides excellent ventilation ,Glass is still the commonest material used for admitting light because it is the cheapest but in hot country it is unsuitable In a sheeted roof occasional sheets may be replaced with a translucent or transparent material ither glass fiber which is translucent , or one of the transparent plastics materials ,Which may be colorless of tinted red , yellow ,etc All these large sheets can be corrugated to allow them to span over distances of about 2 One difficulty in every building for heavy industry is the arrangement of the supports for an overhead crane The crane is carried by a bridge across the building ,and the bridge runs on rails ,one along each wall These two rails are carried on crane beams which pass the full length of the building carried on the main columns ,usually at about 10 m above ground level , so that the crane can command the whole of the work This means that the roof structure and the columns cannot be fully detailed until the main design of the crane is known Crane makers are usually happy to give details of the dimensions of their cranes and bridges to structural engineers ,so this does not usually cause much delay However ,each column must be designed to carry about there quarters of the crane weight plus three quarters of its hook load ,as well as half the bridge weight The roof columns also carry the structure load ,as well as half the bridge weight The roof columns must also carry the structure load (which is much smaller )and they will be about 10 m long plus the crane height The columns will be eccentrically loaded since the part of the column above the must be off-center from the crane grider Precast concrete columns have been successfully cast to carry cranes beams of this type thought it was once thought that would be too big and complicated for recasting A successful design for the overhead crane and its supports will help the reputation of a civil engineering A structure is the part of a building that carries its weight , and for at least half the world’s civil engineers , structures are most of civil engineering We should also remember that anything built is a structure (From an aeroplane engineer’s point of view,an aeroplane also is a structure )A structure may be a dwelling house, or a pyramid in Egypt, the statue of Christ on the Andes a dam built by beavers across a Canadian river A building is a structure with a roof and much of civil engineering structural design is the design of building The building as a whole is designed by an architect , particularly in a densely populated area For water engineers,sewage-treatment engineers , and municipal engineers , structures are not always an important party of their work though even a road or a pipe is a structure they both carry load Every structural design includes the foundation design The structural design itself includes two different tasks , the design of the structure , in which the sizes and locations of main members are settled , and the analysis of this structure by mathematical of graphical methods of both , to work out how the loads pass through the structure with the particular members chosen For a common structure such as a building frame many methods have been developed for analysis , so that the design and analysis will be relatively easy and may need to be performed only once or twice But for any unusual structure the tasks of design and analysis will have to be repeated many times until ,after many calculations ,a design has been found that is strong ,stable and lasting Cheapness does not enter into the quality of the design though it is important since a costly structure will probably not be built and the designer’s fee will therefore be smaller For the typical multi-storey structure in a city ,whether it is to be used for offices or dwellings ,the most important member which the engineer designs is the floor—for two reasons :it repeats all the way up the building ,and it has the greatest effect on the dead load of the building The dead load ,in fact ,as pointed out in ‘foundations’ ,can be fairly exactly calculated by assuming that the floors are the only dead load These floors are generally of reinforced or prestressed concrete because they resist fire better than steel or wood ,an important consideration for a tall building There arte tow main types ,the solid floor and the hollow-tiled(or ribbed)floor In the ribbed floor ,as the drawing shows ,part of the lower half of the slab is hollow , a great advantage because this concrete would not strengthen the floors ,but it is more difficult to cast them with holes through them unless these holes are care-fully planned beforehand It is generally safe to cast a hole through a solid slab by adding a few extra bars of 12mm diameter in the concrete all round it ,though when there is time ,holes should be properly designed Suspended structures are among the most interesting at the moment because the first large ones were recently (1966) completed in London ,and possibly other great cities In all these structures ,the columns or stanchions are made fewer and larger so as to reduce the buckling effects on them and to increase their effective length In two that were recently built in London ,there is only one column ,in the center of the building ,and this is a hollow concrete tower some 12 m square which carries the lifts ,stairs ,ducts ,pipes and cables within it or attached to its wall The tower may be called the core of the building and on its top is a bridge overhanging in all directions ,from which high-tensile steel bars drop to carry the floors below These bars are very thin and can be hidden in a door frame or window frame so that for such a building there need be no noticeable obstruction to sight or horizontal movement in any direction outwards from the core But this is only the beginning of suspended construction If it is successful and if the world’s large cities continue to become more crowded ,the idea will grow ,and the 60-syorey skyscrapers of New York will be tiny compared with the vast 300-storey structures of the world’s future cities It seems possible and even likely that the whole city may be one or a few of these vast buildings ,carried on pairs of towers 1,000 m high joined by lightweight bridge structures ,possibly suspension bridges To reduce sway and buckling ,the columns will be massive ,probably not less than 30 m square ,and the floors will hang from the bridges by thin high-tension steel suspenders in the same way as a suspension bridge deck hangs from its cables 没具体数，不知道差多少？

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