1776年，在《国富论》中亚当·斯密以“每一个精明的家长都知道的格言”将绝对优势理论带入到了人们的视野，以此开创了比较优势理论的源头。他认为，如果按照各国绝对有利的生产条件来进行国际分工，会使得各国的资源得到有效利用并且在对外贸易中能处于优势地位。1817年大卫·李嘉图将相对比较优势理论放在了一个更加宏观理论系统中进行阐述。他认为比较优势就是不同的国家生产同一种产品的机会成本的差异，相对比较优势理论一般被认为是比较优势理论的起点，标志着国际贸易理论体系的建立，确定了其后国际贸易理论发展的方向，在国际贸易理论中占据着主流的地位。20世纪30年代赫克歇尔和他的学生俄林进一步扩展了比较优势学说。他们认为：各国要素禀赋不同是产生国际贸易的基本原因，一个国家应该出口相对充裕要素的产品，进口相对稀缺要素的产品。发展至此，要素禀赋理论与绝对优势学说、相对比较优势理论被称之为传统比较优势理论。之后萨缪尔进一步完善了赫克歇尔、俄林的要素禀赋理论，被称之为现代比较优势理论。其主要原则为“两利相权取其重，两弊相权取其轻”即集中生产并出口其具有“比较优势”的产品，进口其具有“比较劣势”的产品。
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有关经济的参考文献很多，你可以在以下数据库网站查找：一、Econlit经济学全文数据库二、锐思RESSET金融研究数据库三、ProQuest ABI/INFORM 经济管理期刊全文数据库四、wind金融终端五、经济政策研究中心CEPR六、Elsevier Science / North-Holland的经济数据库七、美国经济协会AEA八、美国金融学会九、Altaplana国际经济学门户十、seek68文献馆综合各科领域的数据库文献。包括各个经济学数据库。十一、BVD——ORBIS Bank Focus全球银行与金融机构分析库十二、RePEc全球最大的在线经济学工作论文、期刊文献和软件收集的网站。十三、普林斯顿大学Pliny Fisk经济学和金融图书馆
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Exchange rateIn finance, the exchange rates (also known as the foreign-exchange rate, forex rate or FX rate) between two currencies specifies how much one currency is worth in terms of the For example an exchange rate of 102 Japanese yen (JPY, ¥) to the United States dollar (USD, $) means that JPY 102 is worth the same as USD The foreign exchange market is one of the largest markets in the By some estimates, about 2 trillion USD worth of currency changes hands every The spot exchange rate refers to the current exchange The forward exchange rate refers to an exchange rate that is quoted and traded today but for delivery and payment on a specific future QuotationsAn exchange rate quotation is given by stating the number of units of "term currency" or "price currency" that can be bought in terms of 1 unit currency (also called base currency) For example, in a quotation that says the EURUSD exchange rate is 3 (3 USD per EUR), the term currency is USD and the base currency is EURThere is a market convention that determines which is the base currency and which is the term In most parts of the world, the order is:EUR - GBP - AUD - USD - *** (where *** is any other currency)Thus if you are doing a conversion from EUR into AUD, EUR is the base currency, AUD is the term currency and the exchange rate tells you how many Australian dollars you would pay or receive for 1 Cyprus and Malta which were quoted as the base to the USD and *** were recently removed from this list when they joined the In some areas of Europe and in the non-professional market in the UK, EUR and GBP are reversed so that GBP is quoted as the base currency to the In order to determine which is the base currency where both currencies are not listed ( both are ***), market convention is to use the base currency which gives an exchange rate greater than This avoids rounding issues and exchange rates being quoted to more than 4 decimal There are some exceptions to this rule the Japanese often quote their currency as the base to other Quotes using a country's home currency as the price currency (, EUR 00 = $45 in the US) are known as direct quotation or price quotation (from that country's perspective) ([1]) and are used by most Quotes using a country's home currency as the unit currency (, £4762 = $00 in the US) are known as indirect quotation or quantity quotation and are used in British newspapers and are also common in Australia, New Zealand and the direct quotation: 1 foreign currency unit = x home currency units indirect quotation: 1 home currency unit = x foreign currency units Note that, using direct quotation, if the home currency is strengthening (, appreciating, or becoming more valuable) then the exchange rate number Conversely if the foreign currency is strengthening, the exchange rate number increases and the home currency is When looking at a currency pair such as EURUSD, the first component (EUR in this case) will be called the base The second is called the term For example : EURUSD = 33866, means EUR is the base and USD the term, so 1 EUR = 33866 USDCurrency pairs are often incorrectly quoted with a "/" (forward slash) In fact if the slash is inserted, the order of the currencies should be This gives the exchange if EUR1 is worth USD35, euro is the base currency and dollar is the term currency so the exchange rate is stated EURUSD or USD/EUR To get the exchange rate divide the USD amount by the euro amount 35/00 = 35Market convention from the early 1980s to 2006 was that most currency pairs were quoted to 4 decimal places for spot transactions and up to 6 decimal places for forward outrights or (The fourth decimal place is usually referred to as a "") An exception to this was exchange rates with a value of less than 000 which were usually quoted to 5 or 6 decimal Although there is no fixed rule, exchange rates with a value greater than around 20 were usually quoted to 3 decimal places and currencies with a value greater than 80 were quoted to 2 decimal Currencies over 5000 were usually quoted with no decimal places ( the former Turkish Lira) (GBPOMR : 765432 - EURUSD : 3386 - GBPBEF : 234 - EURJPY : 29) In other words, quotes are given with 5 Where rates are below 1, quotes frequently include 5 decimal In 2006 Barclays Capital broke with convention by offering spot exchange rates with 5 or 6 decimal The contraction of spreads (the difference between the bid and offer rates) arguably necessitated finer pricing and gave the banks the ability to try and win transaction on multibank trading platforms where all banks may otherwise have been quoting the same A number of other banks have now followed Free or peggedMain article: Exchange rate regimeIf a currency is free-floating, its exchange rate is allowed to vary against that of other currencies and is determined by the market forces of supply and Exchange rates for such currencies are likely to change almost constantly as quoted on financial markets, mainly by banks, around the A movable or adjustable peg system is a system of fixed exchange rates, but with a provision for the devaluation of a For example, between 1994 and 2005, the Chinese yuan renminbi (RMB) was pegged to the United States dollar at RMB 2768 to $ China was not the only country to do this; from the end of World War II until 1966, Western European countries all maintained fixed exchange rates with the US dollar based on the Bretton Woods [2]Nominal and real exchange ratesThe nominal exchange rate e is the price in domestic currency of one unit of a foreign The real exchange rate (RER) is defined as , where P is the domestic price level and P * the foreign price P and P * must have the same arbitrary value in some chosen base Hence in the base year, RER = The RER is only a theoretical In practice, there are many foreign currencies and price level values to take into Correspondingly, the model calculations become increasingly more Furthermore, the model is based on purchasing power parity (PPP), which implies a constant RER The empirical determination of a constant RER value could never be realised, due to limitations on data PPP would imply that the RER is the rate at which an organization can trade goods and services of one economy ( country) for those of For example, if the price of a good increases 10% in the UK, and the Japanese currency simultaneously appreciates 10% against the UK currency, then the price of the good remains constant for someone in J The people in the UK, however, would still have to deal with the 10% increase in domestic It is also worth mentioning that government-enacted tariffs can affect the actual rate of exchange, helping to reduce price PPP appears to hold only in the long term (3–5 years) when prices eventually correct towards More recent approaches in modelling the RER employ a set of macroeconomic variables, such as relative productivity and the real interest rate Bilateral vs effective exchange rateBilateral exchange rate involves a currency pair, while effective exchange rate is weighted average of a basket of foreign currencies, and it can be viewed as an overall measure of the country's external A nominal effective exchange rate (NEER) is weighted with trade a real effective exchange rate (REER) adjust NEER by appropriate foreign price level and deflates by the home country price Compared to NEER, a GDP weighted effective exchange rate might be more appropriate considering the global investment Uncovered interest rate paritySee also: Interest rate parity#Uncovered interest rate parity Uncovered interest rate parity (UIRP) states that an appreciation or depreciation of one currency against another currency might be neutralized by a change in the interest rate If US interest rates exceed Japanese interest rates then the US dollar should depreciate against the Japanese yen by an amount that prevents The future exchange rate is reflected into the forward exchange rate stated In our example, the forward exchange rate of the dollar is said to be at a discount because it buys fewer Japanese yen in the forward rate than it does in the spot The yen is said to be at a UIRP showed no proof of working after Contrary to the theory, currencies with high interest rates characteristically appreciated rather than depreciated on the reward of the containment of inflation and a higher-yielding Balance of payments modelThis model holds that a foreign exchange rate must be at its equilibrium level - the rate which produces a stable current account A nation with a trade deficit will experience reduction in its foreign exchange reserves which ultimately lowers (depreciates) the value of its The cheaper currency renders the nation's goods (exports) more affordable in the global market place while making imports more After an intermediate period, imports are forced down and exports rise, thus stabilizing the trade balance and the currency towards Like PPP, the balance of payments model focuses largely on tradable goods and services, ignoring the increasing role of global capital In other words, money is not only chasing goods and services, but to a larger extent, financial assets such as stocks and Their flows go into the capital account item of the balance of payments, thus, balancing the deficit in the current The increase in capital flows has given rise to the asset market Asset market modelSee also: Capital asset pricing model The explosion in trading of financial assets (stocks and bonds) has reshaped the way analysts and traders look at Economic variables such as economic growth, inflation and productivity are no longer the only drivers of currency The proportion of foreign exchange transactions stemming from cross border-trading of financial assets has dwarfed the extent of currency transactions generated from trading in goods and The asset market approach views currencies as asset prices traded in an efficient financial Consequently, currencies are increasingly demonstrating a strong correlation with other markets, particularly Like the stock exchange, money can be made or lost on the foreign exchange market by investors and speculators buying and selling at the right Currencies can be traded at spot and foreign exchange options The spot market represents current exchange rates, whereas options are derivatives of exchange Fluctuations in exchange ratesA market based exchange rate will change whenever the values of either of the two component currencies A currency will tend to become more valuable whenever demand for it is greater than the available It will become less valuable whenever demand is less than available supply (this does not mean people no longer want money, it just means they prefer holding their wealth in some other form, possibly another currency)Increased demand for a currency is due to either an increased transaction demand for money, or an increased speculative demand for The transaction demand for money is highly correlated to the country's level of business activity, gross domestic product (GDP), and employment The more people there are unemployed, the less the public as a whole will spend on goods and Central banks typically have little difficulty adjusting the available money supply to accommodate changes in the demand for money due to business The speculative demand for money is much harder for a central bank to accommodate but they try to do this by adjusting interest An investor may choose to buy a currency if the return (that is the interest rate) is high The higher a country's interest rates, the greater the demand for that It has been argued that currency speculation can undermine real economic growth, in particular since large currency speculators may deliberately create downward pressure on a currency in order to force that central bank to sell their currency to keep it stable (once this happens, the speculator can buy the currency back from the bank at a lower price, close out their position, and thereby take a profit)In choosing what type of asset to is officially pegged, synthetic markets have emerged that can behave as if the yuan were floating)汇率在经济学上，汇率定义为两国货币之间兑换的比例。通常会将某一国的货币设为基准，以此换算金额价值他国几元的货币。在英文使用方面，有时简写为FX，此为外国货币Foreign Exchange的简写。通俗的说，是一国货币单位兑换他国货币单位的比率，也可以说是用一国货币表示的另一国货币的价格。汇率的特性在于它多半是浮动的比率。只要货币能够透过汇率自由交换，依交换量的多寡，就会影响隔天的汇率，因此，有人也以赚汇差营利，今日以较低的比率购进某一外币，隔日等到较高的比率出现时，再转手卖出。所以有时汇率也能看出一个国家的经济状况。了解外汇也能看出这个国家的出口贸易状况。交叉汇率所谓交叉汇率是指两种不同货币之间的价格关系，两个国家之间的货币汇兑是利用各自对美元的汇率套算得出。举例来看，若一美元可分别兑换8112欧元、28日圆，则欧元兑日圆的交叉汇率为71（= 28/8112）。
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建议你使用google直接搜索英文的关键字，可以直接找到英文版的。 另外可以查找香港类似的网站或报道，一般会带有中英两个版本， 就不会出现翻译的问题。再者国内的一些大型官方网站也都附带了英文的界面。
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这几天问题不是一两句话就能回答了得。建议参考文献：1 世界碳市场发展状况与趋势分析：2003-2009年；2 低碳经济的24堂课 2010年 （美）尼克达拉斯；3 企业低碳领导力：聚焦未来经济发展新机遇 世界自然基金会低碳企业发展项目组；4 中国人类发展报告迈向低碳经济和社会的可持续未来 联合国开发计划署驻华代表处低碳经济、生态经济的参考文献比较多，强烈建议到图书馆查阅。 赞同0| 评论
上很多经济类的原创文章，不知道你有没有用
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[], CaoFengZhong ZhouGuoMei etc: law and interests in the collision, the environment economy [J], 2006 (8) : 49-53[], li xin cheng will be strong: environmental management in the definition of government power, technology innovation problems study [J] : serially, 2008 (36) : 181-182[] Chen AJiang: water pollution incidents stakeholders in the analysis, zhejiang [J], journal of 2008 (4) : 191-175[] zhang lm, ZouMin: carry out construction project in jiangsu province third party the environmental supervision thinking, jiangsu environment science [J], 2002 (12) : 26-27[] WangBaoQian: establish urban sewage and garbage disposal supervision system on new ideas and water economy [J], 2006 (11) : 42-43[] [] XuLiZhong, LiGuBing: webblogs China construction projects environmental assessment of the public participation, implementing the subject of fujian normal university (natural science edition) [J], 2006 (10) : 112-116[[] the national development and reform commission and economic system and management institute the cyclic economy in China development strategy study of macroeconomic research group: [J], 2005 (6)[] ZhuLiang, wang: Germany waste management mode and the enlightenment, China resources comprehensive utilization [J], 2009 (12) : 44-45
Influence and Countermeasures of International economic integration on China’s foreign tradeAt present, the world economy is moving to the new trend of regional blocs and economic Currently, the economic integration is gradually breaking continental limits to the Pan-Africa The development of international economic integration will inevitably lead to deeper integration of its internal trade barriers and strengthening the dual external results, leading to non-group increasing competition among countries, protectionism is These are constraints of the international economy, especially the freedom of foreign economic development in developing