Protectionism Doesn't Pay The global financial crisis is no doubt a catalyst for trade As the world economy deteriorates, some countries try to boost growth prospects by erecting trade China calls on these governments not to replay history and revert to protectionism and economic Previous global economic crises were usually accompanied by frequent trade The United States' erection of large-scale tariffs in 1930, for example, triggered a retaliatory global trade During the two oil shocks in the 1970s and 1980s, trade frictions emerged when major economies attempted to increase exports by depreciating their And in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, there was a notable uptick in antidumping actions, countervailing duties and other protectionist The financial crisis is now spilling over into the real economy, hitting sectors like manufacturing and In almost all countries, factories are closing and unemployment is rising, creating political pressure and social More and more governments are strengthening intervention in their economies under the excuse of 'economic security' and protecting vulnerable domestic industries to curb imports from other countries, especially those in emerging Trade protectionism differs from legally acceptable measures to protect It is an abuse of remedies provided by multilateral trade This kind of protectionism is morphing into more complex and disguised forms, ranging from conventional tariff and nontariff barriers to technical barriers to trade, industry standards and industry With the economic crisis worsening, caution must be taken even in employing trade protection measures consistent with World Trade Organization At the Group of 20 Financial Summit in November 2008, world leaders called for countries to resist trade protectionism and committed themselves to refraining from erecting new barriers to trade and investment, a message strongly echoed by the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation summit at the end of last year, and the World Economic Forum held in Davos last History tells us that trade protection measures hurt not only other countries, but eventually the country that erected that trade barrier in the first To counter the Great Depression, the US adopted the Smoot-Hawley Act in 1930, which raised import duties of over 20,000 foreign products significantly and provoked protectionist retaliation from other Faced with that crisis, other countries pursued beggar-thy-neighbor policies that slashed global trade volumes from $36 billion in 1929 to $12 billion in Among the victims, not the least was the US itself, where exports shrank from $2 billion in 1929 to $2 billion in Even in the US, the Smoot-Hawley Act was widely believed to be a catalyst that aggravated the effects of Great DGlobal trade is now in dire Thanks to shrinking external demand caused by the economic crisis, major trading countries have seen their export growth tumble or have suffered huge Germany's exports dropped 6% in November 2008, compared to the same period the prior year -- the highest one-month drop since China also experienced negative export growth in November, and a 5% decline last month, when compared to the prior Protectionist policies would make things even worse and the consequences would be hard to In the heat of the crisis, it's critical that all countries refrain from pointing fingers at each other or pursuing their own interests at the expense of The financial crisis reflects a chronic illness resulting from global economic structural imbalance and financial risk accumulation, and there is no quick fix to this The fundamental interest of every country is to step up consultation and cooperation and keep international trade smoothly Healthy international trade can help revive the world During the Great Depression, the US recovered from its economic woes because the Franklin D Roosevelt administration implemented the New Deal and shunned Today's unprecedented financial crisis has inflicted a severe impact on China and other countries as China's economic growth has slowed, exports have plunged and unemployment pressure has Yet even so, China still firmly believes that trade protectionism isn't a solution to the world's In 2008, amid a contraction in global trade, China imported $133 trillion worth of goods from countries around the world -- an 5% increase over the prior These imports are boosting the economic development of China's trading Since the crisis broke out, the Chinese government has decisively put forward a series of measures aiming at stimulating domestic Given the size and openness of our country, the growth in China's domestic markets can be translated into greater market potential and investment opportunities for other This year China will continue to increase imports and send buying missions abroad for large-scale purchase of equipment, products and China has always championed our mutually beneficial opening-up policy and advocated international economic We maintain that the Doha Round of global trade negotiations should be taken forward in a way that meets the interests of members and complies with the multilateral trading system already China is ready to stand together with all nations in the world to face up to the challenges of today, tackle the financial crisis through cooperation and guide the world economy into a new period of 贸易保护主义无法拯救世界经济对贸易保护主义来说，全球金融危机无疑是一针催化剂。近一时期，随着全球经济形势恶化，一些国家自危、自利、自保倾向抬头。有识之士为此感到忧虑，呼吁各国在出台经济刺激计划时，一定要防止贸易保护主义和经济孤立主义的历史重演。历次全球经济危机往往都伴随着贸易争端的高发。1930年美国政府大范围提高关税，引发了全球范围报复性贸易战。上世纪七八十年代两次石油危机时，主要国家放任货币贬值以扩大出口的作法引发了贸易摩擦。1997年亚洲金融危机之后，全球反倾销、反补贴和保障措施案件明显增多。当前，金融危机已蔓延到制造业、服务业等实体经济领域，各国工厂倒闭剧增，失业率上升，政治压力和社会问题接踵而至。越来越多国家以“经济安全”和保护本国虚弱产业为由加强政府对经济的干预，阻挠其他国家特别是新兴国家企业出口。贸易保护主义不同于正当的贸易保护措施，它是对多边贸易规则中救济措施的滥用。从传统的关税和非关税壁垒，到技术性贸易壁垒、行业标准等，以及产业保护主义，当前贸易保护主义的形式更加复杂多样，隐蔽性更强。在危机加剧的背景下，即使符合WTO规则的保护措施也应慎用，这已成为各国共识。在2008年11月举行的G20金融峰会上，各国领导人同声呼吁抵制贸易保护主义，承诺在未来一年内，避免设置新的贸易和投资壁垒。年底的APEC领导人会议和今年初的世界经济论坛达沃斯年会，再次发出了反对保护主义强音。历史是一面镜子。任何针对他国的贸易保护举措，不仅会损害对方，最终也会伤及自身。经验告诉我们，大规模的贸易保护措施将使金融危机下本已严峻的经济形势更加困难。1930年美国为了应对经济危机，颁发了《斯姆特－霍利关税法》，大幅提高超过2万种外国商品的进口关税，结果引起了其他国家的贸易保护主义报复。面对危机，各国以邻为壑，全球贸易总额大幅缩减，从1929年的360亿美元缩小到1932年的120亿美元，美国自身也深受其害，出口总额从1929年的52亿美元左右缩减到1932年的12亿美元。这一法案即使在美国国内也被普遍认为是大萧条加剧的催化剂。如今全球贸易形势已相当严峻：经济危机导致外需衰退，各主要贸易国的出口增速已急剧下滑，甚至出现大幅萎缩。德国08年11月份出口额较前月大幅下滑6%，为1990年以来的最大单月降幅。中国08年11月以来出口连续出现负增长，其中09年1月出口下降了5%。如果未来贸易保护主义泛滥，使严峻的形势雪上加霜，造成的后果很难预料。我们应该认真思索，这样的后果世界能否承受，又是否值得承受？危机当头，重要的是各国携手共克时艰，而非互相指责，以邻为壑。金融危机是全球经济结构失衡、金融风险积聚长期积累的结果，解决问题也不可能一蹴而就。当前加强磋商、增强合作，保持国际贸易渠道畅通，才符合各国的根本利益。国际贸易的健康发展，是推动世界经济复苏的重要力量。当年罗斯福政府实行新政，与贸易保护主义决裂，带领美国经济走出低谷，推动了全球经济的增长。在这场前所未有的世界金融危机中，中国与其他国家一样都受到严重冲击。去年第三季度以来，经济增速放缓，出口大幅下滑，就业压力加大。即便如此，中国仍坚定认为，贸易保护主义是条死胡同。在全球贸易萎缩的情况下，2008年中国从各国进口11331亿美元的商品，增长5％，促进了贸易伙伴的经济发展。危机爆发以来，中国政府果断出台了一系列扩大内需的措施。作为一个开放的大国，中国内需的提升可为其他国家提供更大的市场空间和更多的投资机会。今年，中国将继续扩大进口，积极组织企业采购团，赴海外大规模采购，进口设备、商品和技术。中国始终奉行互利共赢的开放战略，倡导国际经济合作。我们主张积极推进符合各国利益与多边贸易体制的多哈回合谈判。中国愿与世界各国一道，以开放迎接挑战，以合作应对危机，共克时艰，推动世界经济走向新的繁荣。
As the economic role of multinational，global corpora-tions expands，the international economic environment will be shaped increasingly not by governments or international institutions，but by the interaction between governments and global corporations， especially in the United States，Europe，and J A significant factor in this shifting world economy is the trend toward regional trading biocs of nations，which has a potentially large effect on the evolution of the world trading Two examples of this trend are the United States-Canada Free Trade Agreement （FTA）and Europe 1992，the move by the European Community （EC）to dismantle impediments to the free flow of goods，services，capital，and labor among member states by the end of However， although numerous political and economic factors were operative in launching the move to integrate the EC‘s markets，concern about protectionism within the EC does not appear to have been a major This is in sharp contrast to the FTA，the overwhelming reason for that bilateral initiative was fear of increasing United States None-theless，although markedly different in origin and nature，both regional developments are highly significant in that they will foster integration in the two largest and richest markets of the world，as well as provoke questions about the future direction of the world trading
Protectionism Doesn't Pay The global financial crisis is no doubt a catalyst for trade As the world economy deteriorates, some countries try to boost growth prospects by erecting trade China calls on these governments not to replay history and revert to protectionism and economic Previous global economic crises were usually accompanied by frequent trade The United States' erection of large-scale tariffs in 1930, for example, triggered a retaliatory global trade During the two oil shocks in the 1970s and 1980s, trade frictions emerged when major economies attempted to increase exports by depreciating their And in the wake of the 1997 Asian financial crisis, there was a notable uptick in antidumping actions, countervailing duties and other protectionist The financial crisis is now spilling over into the real economy, hitting sectors like manufacturing and In almost all countries, factories are closing and unemployment is rising, creating political pressure and social More and more governments are strengthening intervention in their economies under the excuse of 'economic security' and protecting vulnerable domestic industries to curb imports from other countries, especially those in emerging Trade protectionism differs from legally acceptable measures to protect It is an abuse of remedies provided by multilateral trade This kind of protectionism is morphing into more complex and disguised forms, ranging from conventional tariff and nontariff barriers to technical barriers to trade, industry standards and industry With the economic crisis worsening, caution must be taken even in employing trade protection measures consistent with World Trade Organization At the Group of 20 Financial Summit in November 2008, world leaders called for countries to resist trade protectionism and committed themselves to refraining from erecting new barriers to trade and investment, a message strongly echoed by the Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation summit at the end of last year, and the World Economic Forum held in Davos last History tells us that trade protection measures hurt not only other countries, but eventually the country that erected that trade barrier in the first To counter the Great Depression, the US adopted the Smoot-Hawley Act in 1930, which raised import duties of over 20,000 foreign products significantly and provoked protectionist retaliation from other Faced with that crisis, other countries pursued beggar-thy-neighbor policies that slashed global trade volumes from $36 billion in 1929 to $12 billion in Among the victims, not the least was the US itself, where exports shrank from $2 billion in 1929 to $2 billion in Even in the US, the Smoot-Hawley Act was widely believed to be a catalyst that aggravated the effects of Great DGlobal trade is now in dire Thanks to shrinking external demand caused by the economic crisis, major trading countries have seen their export growth tumble or have suffered huge Germany's exports dropped 6% in November 2008, compared to the same period the prior year -- the highest one-month drop since China also experienced negative export growth in November, and a 5% decline last month, when compared to the prior Protectionist policies would make things even worse and the consequences would be hard to In the heat of the crisis, it's critical that all countries refrain from pointing fingers at each other or pursuing their own interests at the expense of The financial crisis reflects a chronic illness resulting from global economic structural imbalance and financial risk accumulation, and there is no quick fix to this The fundamental interest of every country is to step up consultation and cooperation and keep international trade smoothly Healthy international trade can help revive the world During the Great Depression, the US recovered from its economic woes because the Franklin D Roosevelt administration implemented the New Deal and shunned Today's unprecedented financial crisis has inflicted a severe impact on China and other countries as China's economic growth has slowed, exports have plunged and unemployment pressure has Yet even so, China still firmly believes that trade protectionism isn't a solution to the world's In 2008, amid a contraction in global trade, China imported $133 trillion worth of goods from countries around the world -- an 5% increase over the prior These imports are boosting the economic development of China's trading Since the crisis broke out, the Chinese government has decisively put forward a series of measures aiming at stimulating domestic Given the size and openness of our country, the growth in China's domestic markets can be translated into greater market potential and investment opportunities for other This year China will continue to increase imports and send buying missions abroad for large-scale purchase of equipment, products and China has always championed our mutually beneficial opening-up policy and advocated international economic We maintain that the Doha Round of global trade negotiations should be taken forward in a way that meets the interests of members and complies with the multilateral trading system already China is ready to stand together with all nations in the world to face up to the challenges of today, tackle the financial crisis through cooperation and guide the world economy into a new period of 贸易保护主义无法拯救世界经济对贸易保护主义来说，全球金融危机无疑是一针催化剂。近一时期，随着全球经济形势恶化，一些国家自危、自利、自保倾向抬头。有识之士为此感到忧虑，呼吁各国在出台经济刺激计划时，一定要防止贸易保护主义和经济孤立主义的历史重演。历次全球经济危机往往都伴随着贸易争端的高发。1930年美国政府大范围提高关税，引发了全球范围报复性贸易战。上世纪七八十年代两次石油危机时，主要国家放任货币贬值以扩大出口的作法引发了贸易摩擦。1997年亚洲金融危机之后，全球反倾销、反补贴和保障措施案件明显增多。当前，金融危机已蔓延到制造业、服务业等实体经济领域，各国工厂倒闭剧增，失业率上升，政治压力和社会问题接踵而至。越来越多国家以“经济安全”和保护本国虚弱产业为由加强政府对经济的干预，阻挠其他国家特别是新兴国家企业出口。贸易保护主义不同于正当的贸易保护措施，它是对多边贸易规则中救济措施的滥用。从传统的关税和非关税壁垒，到技术性贸易壁垒、行业标准等，以及产业保护主义，当前贸易保护主义的形式更加复杂多样，隐蔽性更强。在危机加剧的背景下，即使符合WTO规则的保护措施也应慎用，这已成为各国共识。在2008年11月举行的G20金融峰会上，各国领导人同声呼吁抵制贸易保护主义，承诺在未来一年内，避免设置新的贸易和投资壁垒。年底的APEC领导人会议和今年初的世界经济论坛达沃斯年会，再次发出了反对保护主义强音。历史是一面镜子。任何针对他国的贸易保护举措，不仅会损害对方，最终也会伤及自身。经验告诉我们，大规模的贸易保护措施将使金融危机下本已严峻的经济形势更加困难。1930年美国为了应对经济危机，颁发了《斯姆特－霍利关税法》，大幅提高超过2万种外国商品的进口关税，结果引起了其他国家的贸易保护主义报复。面对危机，各国以邻为壑，全球贸易总额大幅缩减，从1929年的360亿美元缩小到1932年的120亿美元，美国自身也深受其害，出口总额从1929年的52亿美元左右缩减到1932年的12亿美元。这一法案即使在美国国内也被普遍认为是大萧条加剧的催化剂。如今全球贸易形势已相当严峻：经济危机导致外需衰退，各主要贸易国的出口增速已急剧下滑，甚至出现大幅萎缩。德国08年11月份出口额较前月大幅下滑6%，为1990年以来的最大单月降幅。中国08年11月以来出口连续出现负增长，其中09年1月出口下降了5%。如果未来贸易保护主义泛滥，使严峻的形势雪上加霜，造成的后果很难预料。我们应该认真思索，这样的后果世界能否承受，又是否值得承受？危机当头，重要的是各国携手共克时艰，而非互相指责，以邻为壑。金融危机是全球经济结构失衡、金融风险积聚长期积累的结果，解决问题也不可能一蹴而就。当前加强磋商、增强合作，保持国际贸易渠道畅通，才符合各国的根本利益。国际贸易的健康发展，是推动世界经济复苏的重要力量。当年罗斯福政府实行新政，与贸易保护主义决裂，带领美国经济走出低谷，推动了全球经济的增长。在这场前所未有的世界金融危机中，中国与其他国家一样都受到严重冲击。去年第三季度以来，经济增速放缓，出口大幅下滑，就业压力加大。即便如此，中国仍坚定认为，贸易保护主义是条死胡同。在全球贸易萎缩的情况下，2008年中国从各国进口11331亿美元的商品，增长5％，促进了贸易伙伴的经济发展。危机爆发以来，中国政府果断出台了一系列扩大内需的措施。作为一个开放的大国，中国内需的提升可为其他国家提供更大的市场空间和更多的投资机会。今年，中国将继续扩大进口，积极组织企业采购团，赴海外大规模采购，进口设备、商品和技术。中国始终奉行互利共赢的开放战略，倡导国际经济合作。我们主张积极推进符合各国利益与多边贸易体制的多哈回合谈判。中国愿与世界各国一道，以开放迎接挑战，以合作应对危机，共克时艰，推动世界经济走向新的繁荣。
研究国际贸易的发展趋势，是我国制定和完善出口发展战略的重要前提。一、国际贸易的现状与前瞻进入90年代后，由于世界格局发生了巨大变化，西方国家受周期性和结构性因素的影响而先后陷入衰退，再加上美元汇率的变化、国际债务、战争等因素的严重制约，国际贸易的增长速度连年下降，而且波动较大，国际贸易增长率从1989年的7％下降到1990年的5％，1991年又下降到3％，1992年上升到4．5％，1993年又降至2．5％，1994年回升到5％，1995年可望增长到7％左右，1996年后，增长速度还要加快。但不同国家和不同地区之间的发展是很不平衡的。总的看，整个90年代国际贸易将处于一个新的增长期，其发展速度可达5％左右，不仅超过世界经济增长速度还将明显高于80年代（4％）的发展水平。国际商品市场对机电产品、运输设备、计算机、有色金属、石油、石化产品等的需求大幅度增长，价格上扬，其中制成品贸易将进一步扩大。初级产品贸易亦有明显好转，其绝对贸易额将不断增长，但在国际贸易中所占的比重却呈下降的趋势，下降幅度将小于80年代同类产品的水平，这种态势在今后几年内还将继续发展。90年代，国际贸易的基本走势是初期缓慢增长，中后期增速加快，其推动力主要来自西方国家的宏观调控措施。但是与产业结构变动直接关联的技术大周期正处在上升阶段，还没有重大突破，贸易保护主义的新发展以及发展中国家沉重的债务负担等因素的制约，国际贸易出现大幅度增长的可能性不大。二、影响国际贸易发展的几个主要因素（一）世界经济继续保持增长的势头世界经济已摆脱连续4年的增长缓慢和不景气状态，并开始步入新一轮的经济上升周期，世界经济增长率在1991年下降到—0．4％的基础上，1992年提高到0．8％，1993年为1．7％，1994年上升到3．1％，预计1995年可达3．5％，90年代下半期大体可保持3％的增长率，略高于80年代2．9％的水平。西方国家经济普遍复苏和发展，是世界经济好转的重要原因。美国经济在90年代下半期的增长率可能维持在3％左右。西欧经济增长率也从1993年0．4％的负增长，提高到1994年的2．6％，1995年可达2．9％，尔后几年，经济形势将进一步好转，并步入常规增长，年平均增长率将高于80年代。美国、西欧经济情况的进一步好转，有助于抑制日元升值的势头，并在一定程度上推动日本的出口，为日本摆脱经济衰退提供一个转机，使经济出现一些复苏的迹象。90年代下半期，日本经济增长率大体维持在3—3．5％，尽管高过美国和西欧，但仍低于80年代的水平。国际贸易的发展及趋势 发布时间： 2003-7-21 作者：安和芬 研究国际贸易的发展趋势，是我国制定和完善出口发展战略的重要前提。一、国际贸易的现状与前瞻进入90年代后，由于世界格局发生了巨大变化，西方国家受周期性和结构性因素的影响而先后陷入衰退，再加上美元汇率的变化、国际债务、战争等因素的严重制约，国际贸易的增长速度连年下降，而且波动较大，国际贸易增长率从1989年的7％下降到1990年的5％，1991年又下降到3％，1992年上升到4．5％，1993年又降至2．5％，1994年回升到5％，1995年可望增长到7％左右，1996年后，增长速度还要加快。但不同国家和不同地区之间的发展是很不平衡的。总的看，整个90年代国际贸易将处于一个新的增长期，其发展速度可达5％左右，不仅超过世界经济增长速度还将明显高于80年代（4％）的发展水平。国际商品市场对机电产品、运输设备、计算机、有色金属、石油、石化产品等的需求大幅度增长，价格上扬，其中制成品贸易将进一步扩大。初级产品贸易亦有明显好转，其绝对贸易额将不断增长，但在国际贸易中所占的比重却呈下降的趋势，下降幅度将小于80年代同类产品的水平，这种态势在今后几年内还将继续发展。90年代，国际贸易的基本走势是初期缓慢增长，中后期增速加快，其推动力主要来自西方国家的宏观调控措施。但是与产业结构变动直接关联的技术大周期正处在上升阶段，还没有重大突破，贸易保护主义的新发展以及发展中国家沉重的债务负担等因素的制约，国际贸易出现大幅度增长的可能性不大。二、影响国际贸易发展的几个主要因素（一）世界经济继续保持增长的势头世界经济已摆脱连续4年的增长缓慢和不景气状态，并开始步入新一轮的经济上升周期，世界经济增长率在1991年下降到—0．4％的基础上，1992年提高到0．8％，1993年为1．7％，1994年上升到3．1％，预计1995年可达3．5％，90年代下半期大体可保持3％的增长率，略高于80年代2．9％的水平。西方国家经济普遍复苏和发展，是世界经济好转的重要原因。美国经济在90年代下半期的增长率可能维持在3％左右。西欧经济增长率也从1993年0．4％的负增长，提高到1994年的2．6％，1995年可达2．9％，尔后几年，经济形势将进一步好转，并步入常规增长，年平均增长率将高于80年代。美国、西欧经济情况的进一步好转，有助于抑制日元升值的势头，并在一定程度上推动日本的出口，为日本摆脱经济衰退提供一个转机，使经济出现一些复苏的迹象。90年代下半期，日本经济增长率大体维持在3—3．5％，尽管高过美国和西欧，但仍低于80年代的水平。在东盟经济部长第26届年会上，一致同意把建成东盟自由贸易区的时间，从原定15年缩短为10年，决定在2003年1月1日，把东盟内部工业品、农产品的关税降到0．5％。目前，亚太地区的“成长三角”，作为次区域经济合作的一种补充模式进展比较顺利。为了推动亚太经济合作的发展，1995年2月16日，亚太经合组织举行高级官员“特别”会议，讨论地区贸易和投资的远景，并为今年11月在大阪召开部长级会议和第三届领导人会议准备议事日程，同时起草在2020年以前实现亚太地区贸易和投资的自由化“行动计划”。参加会议的官员一致认为议事日程应由贸易和投资自由化，以及经济和技术合作两部分组成。会议同意成立一个私营企业协调组。（四）科学技术进步的加速90年代是以微电子、生物技术、信息技术和新材料等领域为中心的高新技术、继续加速发展、而且日趋走向实用化、产业化的时代，随着高新技术的推广应用，国际化分工的深化，产品质量性能的不断提高，产品种类、规格的不断变化，产品的生产同期将大为缩短。由于产品的不断升级换代，必将促使各国的产业结构和经济结构向更高层次发展，使国际间的相互依赖和渗透进一步加深，从而推动国际商品范围和贸易量的不断扩大。使商品生产的内容、形式以及组织等方面都将发生变革。国际贸易的发展也越来越多地和新技术联在一起，使国际商品生产和贸易的原材料密度和粗放程度大为减少，而技术、知识密集度却大大提高。由于社会消费需求向多样化发展，通过商品交换，促进行业内部贸易的发展。（五）跨国公司的蓬勃发展进入90年代后，跨国公司发展尤为迅速，并正在不断改变着世界商品生产和流通的格局。目前，全球跨国公司约有1．2万家，控制着世界出口贸易总额的2／3，跨国公司内部贸易已占国际贸易的40％。随着生产国际化的新发展，跨国公司将在更大程度上控制着国际贸易、国际投资和技术转让等经济活动。制成品贸易，特别是高技术贸易和资本货物贸易在跨国公司内占的比重也将越来越大，在发达国家的制成品贸易中，由于规模经济的作用，使同一行业内部的双向性国际商品流动发展很快，并成为贸易效益的主要来源，据1992年有关部门的调查，发达国家的产业内贸易约占国际贸易的60％，新加坡、韩国、印度尼西亚等国的产业内贸易约占国际贸易的45％。随着世界经济区域集团化的发展和新贸易保护主义的盛行，企业进入国外市场更为困难。为了绕过东道国的贸易壁垒，为了有利于降低研究、试制、生产成本，扩大市场，实现优势互补，从80年代起，一些大型跨国公司已开始走向无国界化，但是直到近几年，大企业间缔结国际战略联盟的工作才得到迅速发展。跨国公司联盟可以利用自身和他国的不同优势，通过生产要素的国际流动，在世界范围内实现资源的合理配置，共同获取最大的经济效益，推动国际贸易的发展。三、国际贸易结构发生重大变化（一）国际服务贸易蓬勃兴起进入80年代后，服务贸易正以高于商品贸易的速度增长，国际服务贸易额从1982年的4050亿美元增加到1987年的9600亿美元，1992年又增加到10200亿美元，10年间增长1．5倍，同期，世界商品贸易额只增长1倍。1993年，世界商品贸易额比上年减少2％，而国际服务贸易额却增长3％。在国际服务贸易构成中，运输和旅游服务贸易所占的比重相对下降，通讯、保险、广告、技术、租赁、管理等服务贸易所占的比重在不断提高，尤其是高技术产品中的附加值的不断增加，其商品也越来越趋向于服务密集型。发达国家的经济越来越“服务化”，在国际服务贸易中，发达国家约占3／4的份额。美国是世界最大的服务贸易出口国，在电信、数据处理、银行、保险等新兴服务项目中具有明显优势。世界许多国家出于自身的经济安全考虑，对服务贸易实行保护主义政策，普遍构筑了贸易壁垒，对美国服务贸易的扩大构成强大的威胁，因此，几年前，美国就向关贸总协定提出要求解决服务贸易的问题。乌拉圭回合经过多年的谈判，终于达成服务贸易多边框架协定，规定缔约方所承担的一般义务与纪律，包括最惠国待遇、透明度、国民待遇、发展中国家的逐步参与、市场准入、解决争议等条款。服务贸易多边框架的制定，是关贸总协定在推动国际贸易自由化发展问题上的一个重大突破，它将使缔约方对服务市场的保护与多边谈判，加强人员交往与信息流通，特别是知识产权、技术转让、数据处理、咨询、广告等服务行业的贸易逐步自由化，有利于加速国际贸易的发展。（二）环保产品风靡全球1992年，联合国“环境与发展会议”，大大增强了世界人民的环保意识，对人类健康无害的绿色食品、绿色冰箱、绿色空调、绿色电脑、绿色汽车等绿色产品的需求量明显上升，从而推动了电器、能源、建筑、石化等工业部门的变革，防治污染、节能、信息服务等将形成一个新兴的庞大产业。北美、西欧的环保技术已占据国际市场的60％，据西方7个工业国的调查，抵制非环保产品的人数约占总人数的79％，这表明绿色商品在国际市场上已占主导地位，而且市场前景非常广阔。为了解决与贸易有关的环境问题，1993年12月15日，在乌拉圭回合的贸易谈判委员会议上，通过一项“关于贸易与环境”的决议，决定起草一份贸易与环境的工作方案，并制定有关贸易与环境措施之间增强相互作用的规则，监督用于环境目的的贸易措施，以及与贸易有关的环保措施。随着国际社会环保意识的增强，在国际援助和国际投资中，环保工程倍受重视。当前，许多国家不仅陆续推出严格的环保法规，而且在进出口贸易中，无论是工业国家还是“新兴工业国家”，大都制定“环保产品优先”的原则，美国克林顿总统明确提出：对环保产品要制定出口优惠政策；欧洲联盟已制定“绿色输入”政策；东盟国家决定对环保产品征收低关税；这对国际贸易的发展将产生深远的影响。四、国际贸易方式正处在变革中（一）无纸贸易逐步盛行无纸贸易（简称EDI），是利用电子数据交换代替传统的纸面单据进行贸易活动，将标准的经济信息通过通讯网络，在商业伙伴的计算机之间进行传输和处理，以实现买卖双方交易的目的。在国际贸易活动中利用EDI，可以大量减少甚至消除在传统贸易过程中的各种纸面文件和单据，避免数据的重复输入，简化工作程序，这不仅能加快信息的反馈速度，可及时得到大量的商业信息，减少差错，降低成本，提高效率，便于管理，在激烈的市场竞争中，还可提供更有利于企业的贸易机会和条件。无纸贸易始于60年代，但到80年代才逐步扩展到国际贸易领域。从1992年开始，美国的进出口贸易报关都采用EDI；日本结合EDI的应用开发了“战略信息系统（SIS）”；韩国也建立了EDI服务系统——韩国贸易网（KT—NET）；我国政府已成立“中国促进EDI应用协调委员会”，负责推动EDI的应用工作；联合国也提出了应用EDI的贸易服务促进项目——ET2000年，联合国国际贸易法委员会（UNCITRAL）正在制定有关EDI应用的国际法，为EDI在全球范围内普及使用创造条件。（二）管理贸易发展迅速管理贸易具体讲是指一国政府从国家的宏观经济利益和国内外政策需要出发，对外贸活动进行的行政管理和干预。对国际经济组织来讲就是对国际经济的协调管理。进入90年代后，由于国际市场竞争激烈，工业国家争夺市场份额的斗争越来越尖锐，对资本主义世界经济体系形成强烈的冲击，有关国家出于经济利益的相关性，都认识到加强国际经济协调十分必要。发展中国家通过产业结构和经济结构的调整，以及实施改革开放政策，有力地促进经济的发展，韩国、新加坡、香港、台湾等新兴工业化国家和地区的汽车、家电、服装、电子等商品，已开始与发达国家争夺国际市场份额，发达国家为了保护传统产业的发展，采取了不少的管理贸易措施；随着世界经济区域集团化趋势的进一步加强，各区域经济集团为了保护区内市场，在逐步拆除妨碍商品和生产要素自由流动的各种障碍的同时，对外实行排斥，使新贸易保护主义抬头，各集团之间的非公平垄断竞争和矛盾加剧，非成员国也感到自己的贸易空间在不断缩小，为了扩大出口，保护市场，需要加强对贸易的单边管理和与集团之间的贸易协调管理；随着生产国际化的新发展，跨国公司既需要采取自由贸易，消除对外经济扩张的一切限制，同时也需要借助国家干预外贸来提高竞争力，以保护某些产业免遭外国垄断组织的侵害，因此，90年代管理贸易将得到迅速发展。五、发展对外贸易的几点思考90年代，国际贸易发展的总趋势，对我国出口贸易的发展是机遇和挑战并存。其机遇主要是：1．有利于扩大出口。国际贸易的持续增长，标志着国际市场需求的稳步扩大，为我国出口贸易的发展，提供一个比较有利的国际环境，有利于扩大出口。2．有利于调整出口商品结构。在国际贸易中，制成品特别是资本货物（电器、非电气的机械及运输设备）和高新技术、信息、智能等“软件贸易”占的比重将不断上升，这有利于我国调整出口商品结构，加快发展制成品的出口。其挑战主要表现在：1．增加了我国出口贸易的障碍，而且出口的劳动密集型产品，将面临着更激烈的国际市场竞争。2．增加了我国引进外资和先进技术的难度，独联体和东欧国家在不久的将来，可能成为我国的竞争对手。为使机遇变成现实，充分利用国际环境中的有利因素，我国应采取下列措施：1．实行全球性的信息战略。建立健全全球性的行销网络。在世界各地寻求市场机遇，推动外贸活动的开展。2．根据国际市场需求，调整产业结构。特别要对无污染、附加值高、轻型化、多功能等市场发展潜力大的产品加以扶植，并作为经济发展的策略工业对待。3．积极开展跨国经营。我国企业应跳出传统行业的单一产品生产框架，踊跃涉足其他新的领域，开展多种经营，积极参加跨行业的竞争。企业在开拓国际市场时，为了绕过对方的贸易壁垒，可以输出劳务，承包工程，以资本输出代替商品输出，开展跨国、跨地区经营，采取在东道国（地区）投资建厂、合资办厂、收买股份、兼并等手段，就地生产，就地销售。要鼓励有条件的大型企业发展跨国战略联盟。4．进一步扩大市场开放度，加强法制，改善投资环境。
Today, the foreign trade of the country or region's economic development is playing an increasingly important one country to achieve rapid economic development of economy must learn to use both international and domestic foreign trade, by removing the rewards of resources optimization the trade of the analysis is usually divided into of analysis and the structural analysis, the total amount is to analyze questions from the angle, and the structural analysis from the perspective of the importance of examining trade And structure of foreign trade is a national or regional economic development and industrial structure and commodities in international competition, in the international division of labour and international trade in a comprehensive response and commodity structure and regional structure is an important part of the structure of foreign china's accession to wto in 2001, foreign trade has increased rapidly to become the united states, the two countries of the world's third largest trader, but with the rapid development of our foreign The structural problems more and more manifest, for example, the commodity structure is irrational and exports remained low added value of moreover, our foreign trade in merchandise trade is far greater than service trade, so the study of our foreign trade structure is a study of our product import and export commodity structure, the article from our foreign trade structure of goods and regional structure has to Analysed our import and export trade, and finally made to realize the import and export of strategic the article falls into five chapters, the first three chapters to focus on the development of our foreign trade and the structure of foreign trade in goods and regional structure, the fourth chapter, the introduction of our foreign trade, most of the current structure of foreign trade import and export trade and development in order to achieve the strategic objective measures and export of the 当今社会，对外贸易在国家或者地区的经济发展中扮演着越来越重要的角色。一国要获得经济快速的经济发展，必须学会利用国际国内两个市场。通过对外贸易，进行物产的互通有无，从而实现资源的优化配置。对贸易行为的分析通常分为总量分析和结构分析，总量分析是从量的角度分析问题，而结构分析更注重从质的角度考察贸易行为。而对外贸易结构是一国或地区经济技术发展水平、产业结构状况、商品国际竞争能力、在国际分工和国际贸易中的地位等的综合反映，而商品结构和区域结构是对外贸易结构的重要组成部分。中国从2001年加入WTO以来，对外贸易快速增长，以成为即美、日两国以后的世界第三大贸易国，但是随着我国对外贸易的快速发展，在结构上的问题越来越多的显现出来，例如商品结构的不合理，出口产品仍然是低附加值产品。而且，我国的对外贸易中商品贸易额远远大于服务贸易额，因此研究我国的对外贸易结构主要是研究我国的商品进出口贸易，达到商品结构的优化。本文将从我国对外贸易结构中的商品结构和区域结构入手，来分析我国的进出口贸易，最后提出为了实现进出口贸易战略目标的措施。全文分为五章，前三章主要讲我国对外贸易的发展现状和对外贸易结构中的商品结构和区域结构的分析,第四章讲,我国在引入外资时对我国进出口贸易的影响,最针对当前的对外贸易结构,提出进出口贸易发展中为了实现战略目标的措施和出口商品的优化措施。
浅探当代国际贸易新理论对我国对外贸易战略的启示在我国对外贸易规模不断扩大的今天，要想提高我国的国际竞争力，必须重视国际上20世纪70年代以后兴起的国际贸易新理论，实施创新的对外贸易战略，打造具有国际竞争优势的产业。本文通过研究当代国际贸易理论的新发展对我国外贸发展的启示，分析探讨了我国应该如何制定相应的政策，采取相应的对策来促进我国对外贸易的发展。一、当代国际贸易理论的新进展二战后随着科学技术的进步和生产力的不断发展，国际贸易的规模、商品结构和地区分布也发生了很大变化。经济学家在国际贸易理论研究中不断探索，20世纪70年代以来先后出现的影响较大的国际贸易新理论有以下几种：1、战略性贸易政策理论战略性贸易政策理论产生于2O世纪7O年代以来“新贸易保护主义”盛行的背景之下，由美国经济学家保罗·克鲁格曼等人于2O世纪8O年代中期提出，主要内容包括两方面：（1）以内部规模经济为基础的利润转移理论；（2）以外部规模经济为基础的外部经济理论。2、产业内贸易理论20世纪70年代格鲁贝尔和劳埃德等人开创了产业内贸易理论研究，到20世纪80年代初美国经济学家克鲁格曼进一步推动了这一理论的发展。该理论不同于侧重论述产业间贸易的传统贸易理论，代写毕业论文它侧重研究贸易双方在同一产业中既出口又进口同类异质产品的产业内贸易。在不完全竞争产业中，规模经济和产品差异是产业内贸易形成的决定因素。3、产品生命周期理论产品生命周期理论由美国销售学家弗农于1966年首先提出，经威尔斯、赫希哲等人不断完善。产品生命周期理论认为，由于技术创新和扩散，制成品和生物一样具有生命周期。产品生命周期包括五个阶段：(1)新生期；(2)成长期；(3)成熟期；(4)销售下降期；(5)让与期。4、国家竞争优势理论20世纪80年代以来，美国哈佛大学的迈克尔·波特提出并完善了国家竞争优势理论。国家竞争优势理论与传统比较优势理论和要素禀赋理论不同之处在于，该理论认为一个国家之所以能够兴旺发达，其根本原因在于该国的国际竞争优势，这种竞争优势源于一个相互增强的系统，在这个系统中，有四个关键因素影响一国在国际市场上建立和保持竞争优势的能力，这四个因素是：(1)生产要素；(2)国内需求；(3)相关产业；(4)企业战略、组织和竞争度。二、当代国际贸易新理论对我国对外贸易战略的启示1、积极转化国家的竞争优势比较优势是由一国资源禀赋和交易条件所决定的静态优势，是获取竞争优势的条件。竞争优势则是一种将潜在优势转化为现实优势的综合能力的作用结果。比较优势作为一种潜在优势，只有最终转化为竞争优势，才能形成真正的出口竞争力。根据生产要素禀赋，我国一直以来具有劳动力资源的比较优势，但是，在当今国际市场上劳动密集型产品的比较优势并不一定具有国际竞争优势。要确立把比较优势转换为竞争优势的外贸战略。2、高新技术产业发展至关重要由国际产品生命周期理论可以推知：创新国是国际贸易利益的最大获益者。这是因为：在产品的新生期和成长期，创新国以其技术优势垄断了国内和国际市场，因而可以获得大量超额垄断利润；在产品的成熟期进入所谓的“大规模生产”阶段，创新国可以获得巨额规模经济效益；在产品的销售下降期和让与期，创新国在国外投资建厂，输出其知识产权和品牌，延长其产品的生命周期，在国际市场上继续赚取利润。3、发展高层次产业内贸易是提高对外贸易竞争力的重要手段随着国际经济贸易的发展，产业内贸易在给各贸易国带来贸易利益的同时，Probe into New Theory of International Trade Implications of China Foreign Trade Strategy Growing scale of foreign trade in China today, in order to enhance China's international competitiveness, must pay attention to the international community 70 years after the 20th century Xingqi new theory of international trade, the implementation of the Duiwaimaoyi innovation strategy, create an international competitive advantage in the This paper studies the contemporary new development of international trade theory enlightenment for the development of China's foreign trade, analysis of how China should formulate corresponding policies and take corresponding measures to promote the development of China's foreign First, the contemporary theory of international trade, new progress After World War II with the scientific and technological progress and productivity of the continuous development of international trade size, structure and regional distribution of goods, great changes have taken Theory of international trade economist and continuously explore the 20th century, has emerged since the 70's influential new theory of international trade, the following: 1, Strategic Trade Policy Strategic trade policy arise from 7O 2O century since the "new trade protectionism," the prevalence of background, the US economist Paul Krugman, who in the mid 8O 2O century, proposed, mainly including two aspects : (1) internal economies of scale-based theory of profit transfer; (2) based on external economies of scale external economic 2, intra-industry trade theory 20th century 70s Grubel and Lloyd, who created the industry trade theory, to the early 20th century US economist Paul Krugman of 80 to further promote the development of this The theory is different from the focus on inter-industry trade paper the traditional trade theory, on behalf of my thesis research is focused on trade, both sides in the same industry, the export of products they import the same heterogeneous industry Not perfectly competitive industries, economies of scale and product differentiation is the formation of intra-industry trade 3, the product life cycle theory Product life cycle theory Sales Vernon by the United States first proposed in 1966 by Prince, He Xizhe and others Product life cycle theory, as technological innovation and diffusion, and biological products, like life- Product life cycle consists of five stages: (1) Neonatal; (2) growth stage; (3) maturity; (4) decline of sales; (5) for and 4, Competitive Advantage of Nations Since the 80s of the 20th century, Harvard's Michael Porter and improve the Competitive Advantage of N Competitive Advantage of Nations and the traditional theory of comparative advantage and factor endowments theory of difference is, the theory that a country has been able to flourish, and the fundamental reason is the country's international competitive advantage, this competitive advantage derived from a mutually reinforcing system, in this system, there are four key factors that affect a country in the international market, establish and maintain a competitive edge in the ability of these four factors are: (1) factors of production; (2) domestic demand; (3) related industries ; (4) business strategy, organizational and competitive Second, the contemporary theory of international trade on China's foreign trade strategy for new inspiration 1, the positive transformation of the national competitive advantage Comparative advantage in natural resources by a country and trading conditions determine the static strengths are the conditions for competitive Competitive advantage is a way to advantage the potential into real ability to effect the comprehensive Comparative advantage as a potential advantage, only the final into a competitive advantage, to form a real export According to the production factor endowment, along with China's comparative advantage in labor resources, but in today's international market, the comparative advantage of labor-intensive products do not necessarily have an international competitive To establish the comparative advantages into competitive advantages in foreign trade 2, high-tech industries vital to the development By the international product life cycle theory can be deduced: Innovation is the international trade interests of the country's biggest This is because: the product of Neonatal and growth, innovation and technical superiority of its state monopoly of domestic and international markets, and thus get a lot of excess monopoly profits; in product maturity into the so-called "mass production" stage, innovation States can get huge economies of scale; in product sales were down period and give and of innovation invest and build factories in foreign countries, the output of its intellectual property and brand to extend its product life Zhou Qi, in the international market continue to make a 3, the development of high-level intra-industry trade is to improve the competitiveness of an important means of foreign trade With the international economic and trade development, intra-industry trade in all trading nations to bring trade interests, 翻译为：
InvestmentliberalizationandinternationaltradeAbstractThispaperestimatesthecross-Weshowthattheeffectofreducingforeigndirectinvestmentcostsonexportsdependsoncountrycharacteristicsandtradecostsaspredictedbythe[Markusen,1997andMarkusen,2002]Whencountriesdifferinrelativefactorendowmentsandtradecostsarelow,investmentliberalizationstimulatesexports,whereaswhencountriesaresimilarintermsofrelativefactorendowmentsandsize,andtradecostsaremoderatetohigh,AuthorKeywords:Exports;Foreigndirectinvestment;Internationaltrade;Investmentcosts;Investmentliberalization-----------是一个PDF,你看看摘要,觉得可以我传你还有很多,反正就是关于
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浅探当代国际贸易新理论对我国对外贸易战略的启示在我国对外贸易规模不断扩大的今天，要想提高我国的国际竞争力，必须重视国际上20世纪70年代以后兴起的国际贸易新理论，实施创新的对外贸易战略，打造具有国际竞争优势的产业。本文通过研究当代国际贸易理论的新发展对我国外贸发展的启示，分析探讨了我国应该如何制定相应的政策，采取相应的对策来促进我国对外贸易的发展。一、当代国际贸易理论的新进展二战后随着科学技术的进步和生产力的不断发展，国际贸易的规模、商品结构和地区分布也发生了很大变化。经济学家在国际贸易理论研究中不断探索，20世纪70年代以来先后出现的影响较大的国际贸易新理论有以下几种：1、战略性贸易政策理论战略性贸易政策理论产生于2O世纪7O年代以来“新贸易保护主义”盛行的背景之下，由美国经济学家保罗·克鲁格曼等人于2O世纪8O年代中期提出，主要内容包括两方面：（1）以内部规模经济为基础的利润转移理论；（2）以外部规模经济为基础的外部经济理论。2、产业内贸易理论20世纪70年代格鲁贝尔和劳埃德等人开创了产业内贸易理论研究，到20世纪80年代初美国经济学家克鲁格曼进一步推动了这一理论的发展。该理论不同于侧重论述产业间贸易的传统贸易理论，代写毕业论文它侧重研究贸易双方在同一产业中既出口又进口同类异质产品的产业内贸易。在不完全竞争产业中，规模经济和产品差异是产业内贸易形成的决定因素。3、产品生命周期理论产品生命周期理论由美国销售学家弗农于1966年首先提出，经威尔斯、赫希哲等人不断完善。产品生命周期理论认为，由于技术创新和扩散，制成品和生物一样具有生命周期。产品生命周期包括五个阶段：(1)新生期；(2)成长期；(3)成熟期；(4)销售下降期；(5)让与期。4、国家竞争优势理论20世纪80年代以来，美国哈佛大学的迈克尔·波特提出并完善了国家竞争优势理论。国家竞争优势理论与传统比较优势理论和要素禀赋理论不同之处在于，该理论认为一个国家之所以能够兴旺发达，其根本原因在于该国的国际竞争优势，这种竞争优势源于一个相互增强的系统，在这个系统中，有四个关键因素影响一国在国际市场上建立和保持竞争优势的能力，这四个因素是：(1)生产要素；(2)国内需求；(3)相关产业；(4)企业战略、组织和竞争度。二、当代国际贸易新理论对我国对外贸易战略的启示1、积极转化国家的竞争优势比较优势是由一国资源禀赋和交易条件所决定的静态优势，是获取竞争优势的条件。竞争优势则是一种将潜在优势转化为现实优势的综合能力的作用结果。比较优势作为一种潜在优势，只有最终转化为竞争优势，才能形成真正的出口竞争力。根据生产要素禀赋，我国一直以来具有劳动力资源的比较优势，但是，在当今国际市场上劳动密集型产品的比较优势并不一定具有国际竞争优势。要确立把比较优势转换为竞争优势的外贸战略。2、高新技术产业发展至关重要由国际产品生命周期理论可以推知：创新国是国际贸易利益的最大获益者。这是因为：在产品的新生期和成长期，创新国以其技术优势垄断了国内和国际市场，因而可以获得大量超额垄断利润；在产品的成熟期进入所谓的“大规模生产”阶段，创新国可以获得巨额规模经济效益；在产品的销售下降期和让与期，创新国在国外投资建厂，输出其知识产权和品牌，延长其产品的生命周期，在国际市场上继续赚取利润。3、发展高层次产业内贸易是提高对外贸易竞争力的重要手段随着国际经济贸易的发展，产业内贸易在给各贸易国带来贸易利益的同时，Probe into New Theory of International Trade Implications of China Foreign Trade Strategy Growing scale of foreign trade in China today, in order to enhance China's international competitiveness, must pay attention to the international community 70 years after the 20th century Xingqi new theory of international trade, the implementation of the Duiwaimaoyi innovation strategy, create an international competitive advantage in the This paper studies the contemporary new development of international trade theory enlightenment for the development of China's foreign trade, analysis of how China should formulate corresponding policies and take corresponding measures to promote the development of China's foreign First, the contemporary theory of international trade, new progress After World War II with the scientific and technological progress and productivity of the continuous development of international trade size, structure and regional distribution of goods, great changes have taken Theory of international trade economist and continuously explore the 20th century, has emerged since the 70's influential new theory of international trade, the following: 1, Strategic Trade Policy Strategic trade policy arise from 7O 2O century since the "new trade protectionism," the prevalence of background, the US economist Paul Krugman, who in the mid 8O 2O century, proposed, mainly including two aspects : (1) internal economies of scale-based theory of profit transfer; (2) based on external economies of scale external economic 2, intra-industry trade theory 20th century 70s Grubel and Lloyd, who created the industry trade theory, to the early 20th century US economist Paul Krugman of 80 to further promote the development of this The theory is different from the focus on inter-industry trade paper the traditional trade theory, on behalf of my thesis research is focused on trade, both sides in the same industry, the export of products they import the same heterogeneous industry Not perfectly competitive industries, economies of scale and product differentiation is the formation of intra-industry trade 3, the product life cycle theory Product life cycle theory Sales Vernon by the United States first proposed in 1966 by Prince, He Xizhe and others Product life cycle theory, as technological innovation and diffusion, and biological products, like life- Product life cycle consists of five stages: (1) Neonatal; (2) growth stage; (3) maturity; (4) decline of sales; (5) for and 4, Competitive Advantage of Nations Since the 80s of the 20th century, Harvard's Michael Porter and improve the Competitive Advantage of N Competitive Advantage of Nations and the traditional theory of comparative advantage and factor endowments theory of difference is, the theory that a country has been able to flourish, and the fundamental reason is the country's international competitive advantage, this competitive advantage derived from a mutually reinforcing system, in this system, there are four key factors that affect a country in the international market, establish and maintain a competitive edge in the ability of these four factors are: (1) factors of production; (2) domestic demand; (3) related industries ; (4) business strategy, organizational and competitive Second, the contemporary theory of international trade on China's foreign trade strategy for new inspiration 1, the positive transformation of the national competitive advantage Comparative advantage in natural resources by a country and trading conditions determine the static strengths are the conditions for competitive Competitive advantage is a way to advantage the potential into real ability to effect the comprehensive Comparative advantage as a potential advantage, only the final into a competitive advantage, to form a real export According to the production factor endowment, along with China's comparative advantage in labor resources, but in today's international market, the comparative advantage of labor-intensive products do not necessarily have an international competitive To establish the comparative advantages into competitive advantages in foreign trade 2, high-tech industries vital to the development By the international product life cycle theory can be deduced: Innovation is the international trade interests of the country's biggest This is because: the product of Neonatal and growth, innovation and technical superiority of its state monopoly of domestic and international markets, and thus get a lot of excess monopoly profits; in product maturity into the so-called "mass production" stage, innovation States can get huge economies of scale; in product sales were down period and give and of innovation invest and build factories in foreign countries, the output of its intellectual property and brand to extend its product life Zhou Qi, in the international market continue to make a 3, the development of high-level intra-industry trade is to improve the competitiveness of an important means of foreign trade With the international economic and trade development, intra-industry trade in all trading nations to bring trade interests, 翻译为：
What Is International Trade? If you walk into a supermarket and are able to buy South American bananas, Brazilian coffee and a bottle of South African wine, you are experiencing the effects of international International trade allows us to expand our markets for both goods and services that otherwise may not have been available to It is the reason why you can pick between a Japanese, German and American As a result of international trade, the market contains greater competition and therefore more competitive prices, which bring a cheaper product home to the What Is International Trade?International trade is the exchange of goods and services between This type of trade gives rise to a world economy, in which prices, or supply and demand, affect and are affected by global Political change in Asia, for example, could result in an increase in the cost of labor, thereby increasing the manufacturing costs for an American sneaker company based in Malaysia, which would then result in an increase in the price that you have to pay to buy the tennis shoes at your local A decrease in the cost of labor, on the other hand, would result in you having to pay less for your new Trading globally gives consumers and countries the opportunity to be exposed to goods and services not available in their own Almost every kind of product can be found on the international market: food, clothes, spare parts, oil, jewelry, wine, stocks, currencies and Services are also traded: tourism, banking, consulting and A product that is sold to the global market is an export, and a product that is bought from the global market is an Imports and exports are accounted for in a country's current account in the balance of (For more on this, see the articles What Is The Balance Of Payments? and Understanding The Current Account In The Balance Of P)Increased Efficiency of Trading GloballyGlobal trade allows wealthy countries to use their resources - whether labor, technology or capital - more Because countries are endowed with different assets and natural resources (land, labor, capital and technology), some countries may produce the same good more efficiently and therefore sell it more cheaply than other If a country cannot efficiently produce an item, it can obtain the item by trading with another country that This is known as specialization in international Let's take a simple Country A and Country B both produce cotton sweaters and Country A produces 10 sweaters and six bottles of wine a year while Country B produces six sweaters and 10 bottles of wine a Both can produce a total of 16 Country A, however, takes three hours to produce the 10 sweaters and two hours to produce the six bottles of wine (total of five hours) Country B, on the other hand, takes one hour to produce 10 sweaters and three hours to produce six bottles of wine (total of four hours)But these two countries realize that they could produce more by focusing on those products with which they have a comparative Country A then begins to produce only wine and Country B produces only cotton Each country can now create a specialized output of 20 units per year and trade equal proportions of both As such, each country now has access to 20 units of both We can see then that for both countries, the opportunity cost of producing both products is greater than the cost of More specifically, for each country, the opportunity cost of producing 16 units of both sweaters and wine is 20 units of both products (after trading) Specialization reduces their opportunity cost and therefore maximizes their efficiency in acquiring the goods they With the greater supply, the price of each product would decrease, thus giving an advantage to the end consumer as Note that, in the example above, Country B could produce both wine and cotton more efficiently than Country A (less time) This is called an absolute advantage, and Country B may have it because of a higher level of However, according to international trade theory, even if a country has an absolute advantage over another, it can still benefit from (For a review of some of these economic concepts, see the Economics Basics )Other Possible Benefits of Trading GloballyInternational trade not only results in increased efficiency but also allows countries to participate in a global economy, encouraging the opportunity of foreign direct investment (FDI), which is the amount of money that individuals invest into foreign companies and other In theory, economies can therefore grow more efficiently and can more easily become competitive economic For the receiving government, FDI is a means by which foreign currency and expertise can enter the These raise employment levels and, theoretically, lead to a growth in the gross domestic For the investor, FDI offers company expansion and growth, which means higher Free Trade ProtectionismAs with other theories, there are opposing International trade has two contrasting views regarding the level of control placed on trade: free trade and Free trade is the simpler of the two theories: a laissez-faire approach, with no restrictions on The main idea is that supply and demand factors, operating on a global scale, will ensure that production happens Therefore, nothing needs to be done to protect or promote trade and growth because market forces will do so In contrast, protectionism holds that regulation of international trade is important to ensure that markets function Advocates of this theory believe that market inefficiencies may hamper the benefits of international trade and they aim to guide the market Protectionism exists in many different forms, but the most common are tariffs, subsidies and These strategies attempt to correct any inefficiency in the international ConclusionAs it opens up the opportunity for specialization and therefore more efficient use of resources, international trade has potential to maximize a country's capacity to produce and acquire Opponents of global free trade have argued, however, that international trade still allows for inefficiencies that leave developing nations What is certain is that the global economy is in a state of continual change and, as it develops, so too must all of its 如果你走进超市，并能买到南美香蕉，巴西咖啡和一瓶南非葡萄酒，您所遇到的影响国际贸易。国际贸易使我们能够扩大我们的市场，商品和服务，否则可能没有提供给我们。这就是为什么您可以挑选之间日语，德语和美国车。由于国际贸易，市场包含更大的竞争，因此更具有竞争力的价格，由此带来更便宜的产品提供给消费者。什么是国际贸易？国际贸易是交流之间的货物和服务的国家。这种类型的贸易引起了世界经济，在这种价格或供应和需求，影响和影响的全球性活动。政治变化，例如，亚洲可能会导致成本增加的劳动力，从而增加了生产成本为美国的耐克公司总部设在马来西亚，然后导致价格上升，你不得不花钱购买在网球鞋在您当地的商场。在减少的劳动力成本，另一方面，将导致您不需要支付较少为您的新鞋。贸易在全球范围和国家为消费者提供的机会接触到商品和服务不提供在自己的国家。几乎每一种产品可以在国际市场：食品，衣服，零件，石油，珠宝，葡萄酒，股票，货币和水。服务也是交易：旅游，金融，咨询和运输。产品销往全球市场的出口，和一种产品，是购买的全球市场是一个进口。进口和出口都是以一国的经常账户的国际收支。 （欲了解更多关于这个，请参阅文章什么是国际收支平衡？和了解目前帐户收支平衡。 ）提高效率，在全球范围内的交易全球贸易允许富裕国家利用它们的资源-无论是劳动，技术或资本-更有效率。由于国家赋予了不同的资产和自然资源（土地，劳动力，资本和技术），一些国家可能产生同样的好，因此更有效地销售更便宜比其他国家。如果一个国家不能有效地产生一个项目，它可以取得该项目的贸易与其他国家可以。这就是所谓的专业化的国际贸易。让我们来一个简单的例子。 A国和乙国毛衣都生产棉花和葡萄酒。 A国生产10毛衣和六瓶葡萄酒，而乙国生产6毛衣和10瓶葡萄酒一年。既可以产生，共有16个单位。 A国，但是，需要3个小时生产10毛衣和两小时内产生的6瓶葡萄酒（共5个小时） 。 B国，另一方面，需要一小时生产10毛衣和三个小时的生产六瓶葡萄酒（共4个小时） 。但是这两个国家认识到，他们可以生产更多的是侧重于这些产品，他们具有相对优势。 A国然后开始只生产葡萄酒和乙国只生产棉花毛衣。每个国家现在可以创建一个专门的产出20个单位，每年的贸易同等比例的两种产品。因此，每个国家现在已进入20个单位的这两种产品。我们可以看到那两个国家的机会成本，生产这两种产品是大于成本的专业。更具体而言，每个国家的机会成本，生产16单位都毛衣和葡萄酒为20单位的两种产品（交易）。专业化降低其机会成本，因此，最大限度地提高其效率获取他们所需要的货物。随着更多的供应，每个产品的价格将下降，从而有利于最终消费者以及。请注意，在上面的例子中，国家B可以同时生产葡萄酒和棉花比国家更有效的（更少的时间）。这就是所谓的绝对优势，乙国可能是因为较高的技术水平。然而，根据国际贸易理论，即使一个国家拥有绝对优势，另外，它仍然可以受益于专业化。（审查其中的一些经济概念，请参阅经济学基础知识教程。 ）其他可能的好处的交易在全球范围内国际贸易的结果，不仅提高了效率，而且也使国家参与全球经济，鼓励的机会，外国直接投资（ FDI ） ，这是的金额，个人投资于外国公司和其他资产。从理论上讲，经济增长因此可以更有效，也更容易成为有竞争力的经济参与者。为接受政府，外国直接投资是一种手段，外汇和专门知识可以进入该国。这些提高就业水平，从理论上讲，导致经济增长在国内生产总值。为投资者，外国直接投资提供了公司扩张和增长，这意味着更高的收入。自由贸易与保护主义至于其他的理论，有反对意见。国际贸易有两种截然不同的看法程度的控制放在贸易：自由贸易和保护主义。自由贸易是简单的两种理论：一种放任自流的方式，没有任何的贸易限制。主要的想法是，供应和需求的因素，在全球范围经营，将确保发生生产效率。因此，没有什么需要做，以保护或促进贸易和市场力量的增长，因为这样做将自动。与此相反，保护主义认为调节国际贸易重要的是要确保市场的正常运作。主张这一理论认为，市场的低效率可能妨碍国际贸易的利益，他们的目的是引导市场相应。保护主义存在于许多不同的形式，但最常见的是关税，补贴和配额。这些战略企图，以纠正任何效率不高在国际市场上。结论因为它开辟了专门的机会，因此更有效地利用资源，国际贸易的潜力最大限度地发挥一个国家的能力，以生产和收购货物。反对者的全球自由贸易的主张，但是，国际贸易仍然允许效率低下离开发展中国家的损害。可以肯定的是，全球经济正处于不断的变化，因为它的发展，也必须在其所有与会者。
Title: Oppotunities and Challenges of Late 1980's Latin American Export-oriented Economic Reform Abstract: Affected by the 1980's debt crisis, the import substitution model of Latin American countries is no longer Latin American countries restructed to export-oriented Latin American countries enjoyed abundant natural resources and their geographic advantages, but the political instability, inequality, education technological backwardness, lack of funds and the fierce competition on the world market, making the export-oriented economic reform in Latin America lots of Keywords: Latin American, debt crisis, export-oriented, technological, education, East Asia
The claim is a contract for the sale of a party that the other party because of its breach of contract resulting from loss to the other party for damages by the In international trade, insurance is an indispensable condition for and One of the largest operations involving the most extensive marine transport cargo Therefore, because the insurance claims arising from international trade disputes are the most
合 同 CONTRACT 日期： 合同号码： Date: Contract N: 买 方： (The Buyers) 卖方： (The Sellers) 兹经买卖双方同意按照以下条款由买方购进，卖方售出以下商品： This contract is made by and between the Buyers and the Sellers; whereby the Buyers agree to buy and the Sellers agree to sell the under-mentioned goods subject to the terms and conditions as stipulated hereinafter: (1) 商品名称: Name of Commodity： (2) 数 量： Quantity: (3) 单 价： Unit price: (4) 总 值： Total Value: (5) 包 装： Packing: (6) 生产国别： Country of Origin : (7) 支付条款： Terms of Payment: (8) 保 险： insurance: (9) 装运期限： Time of Shipment: (10) 起 运 港： Port of Lading: (11) 目 的 港： Port of Destination: (12)索赔：在货到目的口岸45天内如发现货物品质，规格和数量与合同不附，除属保险公司或船方责任外，买方有权凭中国商检出具的检验证书或有关文件向卖方索赔换货或赔款。