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土木外文文献综述

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土木外文文献综述

刚好我也在做毕业设计 把我的给你用吧! Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a Such contractors are called prime Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a Such organizations are called design-build One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the Administration of the construction procedure often is Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the Managers usually also supervise selection of During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their During construction, all work should be For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe Such inspections may be made at frequent In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building Following is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory After the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway The general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to Before construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local A survey is then made to lay out Field offices for the contractor are erected on or near the If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted Next, the site is prepared to receive the This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is Major construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of As the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are If required, fireproofing is placed for steel Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the The sit is landscaped and Finally, the building interior is painted and The owner’s representatives then give the building a final If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code 传统的施工程序众所周知,在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求,但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此,他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后,施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用,设备,电力,劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如,管道承包商安装水管,电业承办商安装电气系统,电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同,费用由总承包商支付。有时候,除了一个总承包商,还有各种专业承包商,如电气和机械承包商,执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作,由总承包商协调,但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候,业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房,但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此,一些业主会去寻求专家的协助,这些专家被称为专业施工经理,他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判,并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间,它们有助于控制成本,加快运送设备和材料,并保持工作的进度。在依法行政,协助设计和建设的情况下,业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力,一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活,如木工,管道工,工会成员和电工工会,小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间,一切工作都要验收。因此,业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员,建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求,并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外,验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求,并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商,业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证,例如当地的建设,供水,污水处理,政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后,做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书,然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动,总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形,这些都要记录在案,并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后,随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见,必须从脚手架上移除的东西,产生的碎片都要运走。下一步,该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度,以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘,土方支撑,底部排出。建筑开始于基础上,然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子,楼梯,或电梯的安装,可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外,可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升,管道,电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板,外墙,窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候,永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次,屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容:天花板,瓷砖,墙板,墙壁镶板,水管装置,加热炉,空气调节设备,加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板,窗户玻璃;活动板,门;电气设备和仪器,包括照明灯具,开关,变压器,控制器,遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处,围栏,桥梁和其他临时建筑,公共设备,如天然气,电力管道,水管,都连接到建筑上。最后,是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表,会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件,那么业主接受该项目,并交给总承包商的一个占用证书,这表明,总承包商已完成建设,建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。请采纳。

土木工程civil engineering 开题报告Thesis proposal 文献综述Review of the literature

土木类文献综述

土木工程civil engineering 开题报告Thesis proposal 文献综述Review of the literature

文献综述是对某一方面的专题搜集大量情报资料后经综合分析而写成的一种学术论文, 它是科学文献的一种。  格式与写法  文献综述的格式与一般研究性论文的格式有所不同。这是因为研究性的论文注重研究的方法和结果,特别是阳性结果,而文献综述要求向读者介绍与主题有关的详细资料、动态、进展、展望以及对以上方面的评述。因此文献综述的格式相对多样,但总的来说,一般都包含以下四部分:即前言、主题、总结和参考文献。撰写文献综述时可按这四部分拟写提纲,在根据提纲进行撰写工。  前言部分,主要是说明写作的目的,介绍有关的概念及定义以及综述的范围,扼要说明有关主题的现状或争论焦点,使读者对全文要叙述的问题有一个初步的轮廓。  主题部分,是综述的主体,其写法多样,没有固定的格式。可按年代顺序综述,也可按不同的问题进行综述,还可按不同的观点进行比较综述,不管用那一种格式综述,都要将所搜集到的文献资料归纳、整理及分析比较,阐明有关主题的历史背景、现状和发展方向,以及对这些问题的评述,主题部分应特别注意代表性强、具有科学性和创造性的文献引用和评述。  总结部分,与研究性论文的小结有些类似,将全文主题进行扼要总结,对所综述的主题有研究的作者,最好能提出自己的见解。 参考文献虽然放在文末,但却是文献综述的重要组成部分。因为它不仅表示对被引用文献作者的尊重及引用文献的依据,而且为读者深入探讨有关问题提供了文献查找线索。因此,应认真对待。参考文献的编排应条目清楚,查找方便,内容准确无误。关于参考文献的使用方法,录著项目及格式与研究论文相同,不再重复。

文献综述土木工程

土木工程civil engineering 开题报告Thesis proposal 文献综述Review of the literature

范围太宽了,不好写。要限定在建筑还是路桥等方面,再讨论这个课题的研究现状,网上有大把,自己百度

土木工程文献综述

范围太宽了,不好写。要限定在建筑还是路桥等方面,再讨论这个课题的研究现状,网上有大把,自己百度

土木工程civil engineering 开题报告Thesis proposal 文献综述Review of the literature

土木工程类文献综述

土木工程civil engineering 开题报告Thesis proposal 文献综述Review of the literature

文献综叙一、 土木工程的概念土木工程是建造各类工程设施的科学技术的总称,它既指工程建设的对象,即建在地上、地下、水中的各类工程设施,也指所应用的材料、设备和所进行的勘测设计、施工、保养、维修等技术。它是最古老的工程科学,与人类的发展和生存息息相关。土木工程领域涵盖了工程力学、结构工程、工程施工、工程管理、市政工程、防灾减灾与防护工程、岩土工程、桥梁工程等学科,不仅涉及工程学科,还与经济学、人文社科、管理学科交叉。建造工程设施的物质基础是土地、建筑材料、建筑设备和施工机具。借助于这些物质条件,经济而便捷地满足人们使用要求和审美要求,又能安全承受各种荷载的工程设施,是土木工程学科的出发点和归宿。土木工程本身具有四个基本特征:(1)综合性;(2)社会性;(3)实践性;(4)技术,经济,建筑艺术的统一性。“材料,施工,理论”是土木工程的三要素。正是这三要素的相互影响和促进,才有了土木工程的不段发展,而其中又以材料最为关键。砖瓦的出现使得古代的土木工程发生了第一次飞跃;十九世纪中叶,钢材和钢筋混凝土在建筑营造中应用则使近代土木工程发生了革命性的变化,实现了第二次飞跃;至二十世纪中叶,预应力混凝土的发明和广泛使用则是土木工程的第三次飞跃,标志着现代土木工程的开始。二、 土木工程的主要结构土木工程的主要结构有钢结构和混凝土结构。钢结构是由钢筋构件制成的工程结构。构件之间用焊接,螺栓或铆钉连接,与其他结构形式诸如钢筋混凝土结构,木结构和砖瓦结构相比,钢结构在结构形式,构建计算方面,连接的计算与构件处理方面等都有显著的特点。钢结构内在的特征是由其原材料及加工过程决定的。钢结构的特点有:1、强度高,重量轻。与其他材料相比强度要高得多。在同样的荷载条件下,钢结构构件截面小,自重轻,构件重量轻也利于运输和安装。2、材质均匀,可靠性高。钢结构在冶炼和轧制过程中,质量得到严格控制,材质波动范围小。材质组织均匀,接近于各向同性,其实际工作性能与构件计算理论符合较好,所以其可靠性较高。3、塑性韧性好。建筑工程中钢结构所选用的钢材是有很好的塑性,在拉力作用下,应力—应变曲线有明显的屈服点和一段屈服平台,然后进入强化阶段。结构在一般工作条件下,不会因为超载而突然断裂。构件采用制造,采用机械化程度高的专业化生产有严格的工艺要求,制造精确度高,周期短。 钢结构以其优越的性能在高层超高层建筑中担当着重要的角色,至1998年,我国已建成的300米以上的建筑有3座,其中2座为钢架加筋混凝土或劲性混凝土核心的结构。 利用水泥掺以极配合理的粗细骨料,加水拌合并浇注在模型之中,经硬化后就可以得到人们需要的各种形状的人工石料——混凝土。它的抗压能力较强但抗拉能力较弱,为了克服这个缺陷,人们就自然的想到利用抗拉强度很高的钢筋来弥补。 钢筋混凝土的优点:1、可以就地取材2、耐久性好3、耐火学好4、整体性强5、可模型好三、 建筑结构类型建筑结构主要有框架结构、剪力墙结构、框架剪力墙结构和筒体结构。框架结构是指以钢筋混凝土浇捣成承重梁柱,再用预制的加气混凝土、膨胀珍珠岩、浮石、蛭石、陶烂等轻质板材隔墙分户装配成而的住宅。适合大规模工业化施工,效率较高,工程质量较好。 框架结构由梁柱构成,构件截面较小,因此框架结构的承载力和刚度都较低,它的受力特点类似于竖向悬臂剪切梁,楼层越高,水平位移越慢,高层框架在纵横两个方向都承受很大的水平力,这时,现浇楼面也作为梁共同工作的,装配整体式楼面的作用则不考虑,框架结构的墙体是填充墙,起围护和分隔作用,框架结构的特点是能为建筑提供灵活的使用空间,但抗震性能差。剪力墙结构是用钢筋混凝土墙板来代替框架结构中的梁柱,能承担各类荷载引起的内力,并能有效控制结构的水平力。钢筋混凝土墙板能承受竖向和水平力,它的刚度很大,空间整体性好,房间内不外露梁、柱楞角,便于室内布置,方便使用。剪力墙结构形式是高层住宅采用最为广泛的一种结构形式。框架剪力墙结构与框架结构的主要区别就是多了剪力墙,框架结构的竖向刚度不强,高层或超高层的框架结构建筑更是如此!为了解决这个问题故使用剪力墙。框架-剪力墙结构,又称为框剪结构,它是框架结构和剪力墙结构两种体系的结合,吸取了各自的长处,既能为建筑平面布置提供较大的使用空间,又具有良好的抗侧力性能。框剪结构中的剪力墙可以单独设置,也可以利用电梯井、楼梯间、管道井等墙体。因此,这种结构已被广泛地应用于各类房屋建筑。框剪结构的变形是剪弯型。众所周知,框架结构的变形是剪切型,上部层间相对变形小,下部层间相对变形大。剪力墙结构的变形为弯曲型,上部层间相对变形大,下部层间相对变形小。对于框剪结构,由于两种结构协同工作变形协调,形成了弯剪变形,从而减小了结砍的层间相对位移比和顶点位移比,使结构的侧向刚度得到了提高。水平荷载主要由剪力墙来承受。从受力特点看,由于框剪结构中的剪力墙侧向刚度比框架的侧向刚度大得多,在水平荷载作用下,一般情况下,约80%以上用剪力墙来承担。因此,使框架结构在水平荷载作用下所分配的楼层剪力,沿高度分布比较均匀,各层梁柱的弯矩比较接近,有利于减小梁柱规格,便于施工。筒体结构由框架-剪力墙结构与全剪力墙结构综合演变和发展而来。筒体结构是将剪力墙或密柱框架集中到房屋的内部和外围而形成的空间封闭式的筒体。其特点是剪力墙集中而获得较大的自由分割空间,多用于写字楼建筑。

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