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西方经济学论文范文大全

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西方经济学论文范文大全

西方经济学论文对边际生产力理论的探讨一、边际生产力理论的局限性  边际生产力理论是新古典经济理论的基石。边际生产力理论是用于阐明在生产中相互合作的各种生产要素或资源所得到的报酬的一种方法。通常情况,当其他要素数量不变,而单位某种生产要素离开(或加入)生产过程时所引起的商品产值的减少(或增加)量,就等于该种生产要素一个单位的服务报酬或其他报酬。这里很明显,决定生产要素的报酬是取决于生产过程中的技术条件。在新古典理论中,一般用生产函数来表明这种投入和产出的技术关系。边际生产力理论用数学公式来表达就是:  厂商的生产函数是Y=F(x[,1],x[,2],x[,3],x[,4]……),Y是生产过程中的产出,x[,1],x[,2]……是生产过程中的投入,F是生产函数。一般情况下,生产函数满足下面假设:产出对生产要素的投入满足一阶偏导数大于零,二阶偏导数小于零,即附图。一阶偏导数大于零表示,在其他投入不变的情况下,任何一种生产要素等量增加,必然带来实物产出的增加,即边际产品大于零,这一点是非常容易理解的,可以说是市场经济条件下的一个公理,厂商没有必要在产量减少时增加一种要素的投入量。二阶偏导数小于零也就是生产函数的凸性假设,表明一种生产要素的边际产品会随该要素的投入量增加而递减的,这是一个比一阶导数大于零较强的假定,这就是经济学中常常使用的边际产品递减规律。“实际上这并不是一个规律,而是大多数生产过程所具有的共同特性”。(注:范里安:《微观经济学:现代观点》,上海三联出版社、上海人民出版社,1994年,第395页。)在生产过程中,任何一种要素的报酬超过了在少使用这种要素时损失的产值时,那么就会少使用一单位该种生产要素,并且如果这种不平衡没有消除,就会继续减少使用这种生产要素,直到相等为止,即:附图,(注:实际上应该要素的报酬应该等于要素的边际生产收入(marginal revenue of product),而不是边际产值(value ofmarginal product),由于新古典的边际生产力理论主要是研究是完全竞争市场,因此二者在量上是相等。)其中w[,i]是x[,i]这种生产要素的报酬(价格),P为产品的价格。这个结论可以很简单地从给定生产函数和厂商利润最大化的条件下得出。  边际生产力理论有两要素形式和多要素形式来说明生产要素的需求量。两要素是指总资本和总劳动,在这种形式下,生产函数的形式是Y=F(L,K),L、K分别是生产过程中投入的劳动和资本的数量。多要素是指在生产过程中使用的可分辨要素的种类,就是在本文开始部分所采用的那种形式。两要素形式可以使边际生产力理论进行简化,但是这个模型存在着一个致命的弱点,就是如何将一个厂商投入的不同质的劳动和不同质的资本进行加总,(注:加总问题是边际生产力理论所遇到的最大的困难,边际生产力需要一个总量劳动和资本的概念,资本的加总只能通过对其价值(格)进行加总的形式来实现,而资本的价格受到资本的边际生产力(利息率)的影响,即维克赛尔效应,从而使边际生产力理论成为一个循环论证。)这也是在上个世纪剑桥资本争论最为激烈的一个问题。多要素形式避免了对不同的劳动和资本进行加总,但这种形式却远离现实,因为这种形式会使生产函数连续可微分的性质难以成立:许多厂商的投入要素都是固定比例,不可能单独地增减一种生产要素而不增减其他的生产要素,即生产要素之间不存在替代性,这样没有办法得出一种要素的边际生产力,因此边际生产力的理论适用范围非常有限。本文在这里分析的是边际生产力理论的适用范围,因此,在这里采用的是两要素生产模型,将厂商的投入抽象地分为劳动和资本,而如何将异质的资本和劳动加总的问题给抛开,而抽象地认为劳动和资本是同质的。这样边际生产力的模型就可以描述成:对于一个厂商的生产函数Y=F(L,K),劳动者的报酬也就是工资附图,资本的报酬也就是利润(息)率附图。二、总额相符问题(Adding-up Problem)  边际生产力在直觉上非常容易被人接受的,因为它体现了一个基本的经济理论原理,那就是其他要素固定不变时,一种要素投入所带来的边际收益等于边际成本,从而使厂商的利润最大化。但是这里存在着一个问题就是:如果每个要素的每一单位都按照相应的边际生产力得到相应报酬,那么厂商的产量是否等于所有的生产要素的边际产品,这就是Y=MP[,L]×L+MP[,K]×K。在1894年,威克斯蒂德在《论分配法则的协调》中详细地论述了这一观点,“这些分配份额加起来等于每个厂商的净产量。”(注:《帕尔格雷夫经济学词典》第1卷,经济科学出版社,1986年,第22-23页;熊彼特:《经济分析史》(第3卷),商务印书馆,1996年,第407-409页。)这个结论的详细描述是:在生产函数是一次(线性)齐次性时,各种投入的生产要素的边际产品乘以其投入量的总和正好等于其产值,这就是总额相符,也就是欧拉定理(Euler's theorem),从而使边际生产力在理论上更加完美。如果用产品的价格和生产要素的报酬来表示,就可以得到各种投入要素的报酬总和正好等于总产值。(注:在欧拉定理Y=MP[,L]×L+MR[,K]×K两边同时乘以产品的价格P,就可以得到Y×P=w×L+r×K。)厂商的(超额)利润等于厂商的收入(总产值)减去各种生产要素的报酬总和(总成本),即总额相符,厂商的利润为零。但是这里存在着一个条件,就是生产函数必须是线性齐次的,即生产是规模报酬不变的。  在新古典经济理论中,通常用生产函数的齐次性来表示规模报酬。齐次性是一个数学概念,它表明一个函数F(x,y)如果满足条件:P(ax,ay)=a[n]F(x,y),这个函数就是n次齐次性。如果n=1时,就是一次齐次性,也称为线性齐次性,即F(ax,ay)=aF(x,y)。如果一个生产函数是n次齐次生产函数,那么当n>1时,该生产函数就是规模报酬递增,n<1时,是规模报酬递减,n=1时,是规模报酬不变。这就意味着总额相符只有在规模报酬不变时,才能成立。同样可以容易证明出:当n<1时,即存在规模报酬递减时,厂商的总产值就小于各种生产要素的得到报酬总和,存在着“总额不足”;当n>1时,即存在规模报酬递增时,厂商的总产值就大于各种生产要素的得到报酬总和,存在着“总额过剩”。那么,谁来弥补“不足”和得到“过剩”呢?很明显,这两种情况下,边际生产力理论存在着重大的缺陷,因为它与规模报酬递增和递减相矛盾,除非可以证明资本主义经济中不存在着这两种情况。在经济中存在规模报酬递减的可能不大,如果存在规模报酬递减,就可以把大企业分割成小企业来生产,而在现实经济中很少出现这种现象。所以一般认为经济是规模报酬不变和递增的。三、规模报酬递增现象的存在性  规模报酬递增是现代经济中普遍存在的现象,是经济发展的必然结果。从资本主义发展的历史来看,生产是逐渐集中,大规模生产可以实行分工,采用先进设备,聘请高级专家,节省管理费用,都能提高生产效率,这些足以表明现代化的生产肯定是存在着规模递增现象。斯密最早提出分工会导致专业化,从而提高劳动生产率,而使规模报酬呈递增。斯拉法在《经济学杂志》1926年12月发表了《竞争条件下的报酬规律》,指出“在纯粹竞争的条件下,只要产量增加伴之有内部经济,厂商便不会处于完全均衡状态”,“递增收益也是同完全竞争的假设不协调的”。从此也就揭开了不完全竞争理论的序幕。也有一些经济学家承认存在着规模报酬递增现象,但是“根据复制的观点,不变规模报酬是最自然现象,但这并不等于说其他情况不可能发生……递增的规模报酬通常在一定的产量范围内适用。”用复制来说明不变规模报酬的存在是有疑问的,这种复制是远离现实的,因为在现实世界,人们基本上看不到厂商扩大产量的方法是在原有规模上扩大,而不是去建造新厂复制原来的工厂,范里安这种认为不变规模报酬是犯了形而上学的错误。但是不管怎么很难否认规模报酬递增的存在。四、边际生产力理论对规模报酬递增的解释  既然规模报酬递增是现代化生产中必然存在的现象,那么边际生产力理论必然要对这种与其相矛盾的规模报酬递增给以解释。  一种解释认为经济中不存在规模报酬递增的现象,之所以产生规模报酬递增,是由于有一种促使规模报酬递增的生产要素被人们忽视了,只要加入新的生产要素,生产函数就不会存在规模递增现象:两种要素的生产函数解释不了现实经济的真实情况,在现代经济中,生产要素也在多元化,科学技术、知识、教育等因素加入到生产函数中去,生产函数成了Y=F(L,K,T,I,E……),从而使生产函数变得越来越复杂,这样处理之后,生产函数就成为线性齐次性,就可以满足于总额相符,从而就使边际生产力学说更加完美,甚至进一步找出科技、知识、教育等在生产过程中的作用来。这种学说存在着一个明显的错误,根据生产要素的性质,生产要素起着两个方面的作用,一是生产过程的投入物,二是要在生产过程中得到相应的报酬。尽管我们可以通过复杂的计算得出科技、知识和教育的边际生产力,但是是谁根据这些要素的边际生产力而得到它的报酬呢?是工人,还是资本家,还是科学家?另外,科技和知识都是体现在劳动和资本中,不能从劳动和资本中独立出来,生产函数的形式应该是Y=F[L(T,I,E……),K(T,I,E……)],这样,从数学的逻辑上分析,自变量之间必然是独立的,即有完全的自由度。如果技术、知识、教育和劳动、资本之间存在着相关性,它们就不可能同时作为生产函数的自变量,即同时成为生产要素。因此,用多生产要素的生产函数使之成为线性齐次性,从而可以使之满足总额相符的方法,是存在着逻辑矛盾。

西方就业理论演进剖析 就业这一重大的社会经济问题长期以来一直受到西方经济学家的关注,从而形成了各具特色的就业理论。西方经济学家对就业问题的长期研究和探索,形成了适应市场经济需求的多角度、多层次的就业理论。如古典经济学派的就业理论,凯恩斯的充分就业理论,新古典综合学派的就业理论,新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论等。 (一)古典学派的就业理论 萨伊定律是古典经济学派就业理论的基石,其基本内涵是供给创造需求。该学派经济学家代表人物有马歇尔、庇古等,他们从完全竞争的市场结构出发,认为市场上产品价格和货币工资可以根据市场供求状况自发调整。劳动供给和劳动需求相互作用决定实际工资和就业水平,供求平衡时的就业量就是充分就业水平。进而认为,只要不存在工资刚性,工资率可以自由伸缩,市场机制能自由的发挥调节作用,可使一切可供使用的劳动力资源都被用于生产,劳动力市场总能达到就业均衡,长期持续的非自然失业不可能存在,存在的只是自愿失业和短期性摩擦性失业。 他们认为,解决失业问题的办法是消除货币工资的刚性,使货币工资能够随市场的需求而发生相应的变化。古典学派将自由竞争作为前提条件,主张市场调节平衡就业,否定了失业问题的普遍性。但换个角度理解失业的产生仍然是有可能的,失业问题正是竞争不充分所导致的结果,要解决失业问题首先就应该解决劳动力市场竞争的不充分问题。 (二)凯恩斯的就业理论 凯恩斯就业理论是以有效需求原则为核心,认为就业量取决于有效需求。失业之所以持续不断,是由于资本主义社会一般情况均存在“有效需求不足”。即总供给价格和总需求价格达到均衡时的总需求不足,由此造成较多的社会失业,即不充分就业。凯恩斯主义的促进就业理论实际上主张降低工资,即在不降低名义工资的情况下,降低实际工资。但前提是扩大总需求,因为总需求的扩大,必然会导致通货膨胀,工人名义工资不变,但实际工资相对减少。为实现充分就业,凯恩斯认为,必须摒弃自由放任的经济政策,依靠国家干预,提出需求管理政策,从而达到促进生产,增加就业的目的。 (三)新古典综合学派的就业理论 20世纪60年代末,各主要资本主义国家的经济相继陷入“滞胀”的困境,凯恩斯理论失灵了。因而以托宾、杜生贝等为代表的新古典综合学派经济学家提出“结构性失业问题”,力图用市场结构的变化来解释失业和通货膨胀并发症,认为是微观市场的不完全性和结构变化引起滞胀。得出结构性失业是因经济结构的变化而引起的劳动力供给和需求的结构失调,结构性失业的存在必然引起失业与工作空位并存。由于强大的工会力量使工资易涨不易跌,所以尽管社会上存在着失业,但货币工资却不下降,而只要存在工作空位,货币工资就会迅速上升。于是,失业与工作空位并存就转化为失业与货币工资上涨并存,进而转化为失业与通货膨胀的并发症。该理论主张从就业内容或就业结构角度来解决结构性失业问题,如政府要指导收入政策,即政府要采取措施限制工资和物价的上升,以缓和通胀;注重完善劳动力市场,缓和因劳工市场技术结构变化造成的失业;适当修改完善失业补助金制度,激励失业者就业。 (四)新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论 新凯恩斯主义的劳动市场理论主要包括名义工资粘性和实际工资粘性两方面。名义工资粘性是由于长期劳动合同的存在和交错调整工资所致,工资通常是由于工会与企业通过谈判订立的合同而固定下来的。在合同有效期限内工资不能随市场供求行情而调整。即使没有工会组织未签订劳动合同的企业,因受有合同的企业粘性工资的影响,工资也不会轻易变动。隐性合同理论认为,雇员与雇主之间随着时间的推移,它们之间会形成某种稳定收入的非正式契约,从而使工资具有粘性。隐性合同导致失业的原因是由于在非对称信息条件下,厂商和工人因信息有限,决定了均衡合同出现无效率的非充分就业,因而通常会解除工人。效率工资论则说明了雇主会主动付给员工高工资,以提高雇员的生产积极性,提高跳槽和偷懒的机会成本同时吸引有能力及高技术人才。内部人——外部人理论则指出,内部人由于受到劳动转换成本的保护,在工资决定上有着重要的讨价还价能力,具有较强的就业优势和地位。致使工资调整主要取决于在职人员而不是失业者,于是,便可能出现非自愿性失业。因而解决失业问题政府就要干预工资合同,要减少工资粘性,增加工资弹性,使工资能够适时适度灵活调整。 (五)反古典经济学的就业理论 “反古典”学派主张放弃自由放任的经济政策,借鉴日本的经济模式及行政主导性的市场经济模式。在就业问题上,强调在保证企业自由用人和求职者自主择业的前提下,在保持企业活力和充分发挥市场机制作用的基础上,国家对市场活动进行宏观调控和政策指导。同时建立稳定就业,劳动力流动平缓、劳资合同和工资差距较小的劳动力模式。

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西方经济学,就是被运用于西方市场经济国家的经济学,有市场经济学之称。以1776年亚当·斯密《国富论》的出版为标志,西方经济学历经了200多年的风雨沧桑。在这个不长不短的历史进程中,从斯密、李加图、萨伊、穆勒、马尔萨斯、马歇尔到凯恩斯、弗里德曼、萨谬尔森、卢卡斯、斯蒂格利茨,经济学大师辈出;从古典经济学、新古典经济学到凯恩斯主义经济学、新古典宏观经济学和新凯恩斯主义经济学,经济学流派林立。百花齐放,百家争鸣,带来西方经济学的不断创新和发展,以致于文献上有“经济学帝国”之称。西方经济学它主要介绍流行于西方市场经济国家的现代经济理论与经济政策。它既研究古老而又现代的家政管理,又研究多姿多彩的企业经营,还大胆解说政府日益加码的经济调控。它既赞美价格机制这只“看不见的手”的效率优势,也无情的剖析市场机制在不少领域资源配置上的诸多缺陷。主要包括微观经济学和宏观经济学。微观经济学--研究家庭、厂商和市场合理配置经济资源的科学--以单个经济单位的经济行为为对象;以资源的合理配置为解决的主要问题;以价格理论为中心理论;以个量分析为方法;其基本假定是市场出清、完全理性、充分信息。宏观经济-研究国民经济的整体运行中充分利用经济资源的科学—以国民经济整体的运行为对象;以资源的充分利用为解决的主要问题;以收入理论为中心理论;以总量分析为方法,其基本假定为市场失灵、政府有效。从方法上看,西方经济学运用实证分析和规范分析梁中方法。实证分析企图超脱于一切价值判断,只研究经济本身的内在规律,并据此分析和预测人们的经济行为效果,着重回答“是什么”的问题。实证分析的步骤。定义----对经济学所研究的各种变量规定明确的含义;这里的变量有内生变量和外生变量、流量和存量;内生变量是一种理论内所要解释的变量,外生变量是一种在理论内影响其他变量而他本身则由理论外的因素来决定的变量;存量是通常在一定时点上才能有效测定的变量,流量是指通常在一定时期内才能有效测定的变量;假设----某一理论所适用的条件,在假设条件下得出结论,就象自然科学在严格的假定条件下分析自然现象一样,事实上整个社会即使天然的实验室;假说----未经证明的各个经济变量之间的关系;预测----根据假说对未来进行预期规范分析通过设定一些价值判断和好与坏的标准,作为经济理论的前提和制定政策的依据,并研究如何才能符合这些标准,着重回答“应该是什么”的问题。西方经济学德发展可以主要分为三个部分,即古典经济学、新古典经济学与现代经济学。古典经济学—从17世纪中期开始到19世纪70年代为止—包括英国经济学家斯密、李嘉图、西尼尔、穆勒、马尔萨斯,法国经济学家萨伊—以斯密为代表,其1776年出版的《国富论》被称为经济学上的第一次革命,建立了以自由放任为中心的经济学体系,他标志着经济学的诞生—代表性的教科书是穆勒《政治经济学原理及其在社会哲学上的应用》流行了20年。新古典经济学—从19世纪的“边际革命”开始到20世纪30年代为止—包括英国经济学家杰文史、马歇尔,法国经济学家瓦尔拉斯—边际效用价值论的提出被说成是经济学上的第二次革命,他标志着新古典经济学的开始,马歇尔在1890年发表的《经济学原理》是其代表性的教科书。现代经济学—开始于20世纪30年代凯恩史主义的产生---包括英国经济学家凯恩史、琼·罗宾逊、斯拉伐,以及美国经济学家萨缪尔森、弗里德曼和卢卡斯—其中凯恩斯在1936年出版的的《就业利息和货币通论》标志着当代经济学的产生,该书与爱因斯坦的《相对论》、达尔文的《物种起源》、马克思的《资本论》被人们称着改变世界历史的四大著作;而萨缪尔森的1948年开始发行的《经济学》至今已出第十六版,是第三本好教科书

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely But others don’t agree with the John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher But M Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen However, that will not One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take So the inflation is not good news for JWhat cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $00 bills that are able to buy them If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $ However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of (InflationD, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’ But the price level decreases from P to P’ So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of But in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $0, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $ This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on (InflationD, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of Is deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was So the supply of goods obviously went Therefore, the price level Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be The economy contracted because of lack of People may lose their Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their (InflationD, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest Obvious from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this That would activate the aggregate (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic So the purpose of the policy has not achieved The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the Interest rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange Foreign exchange is one type of financial An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the If the interest rate drops, the return will Therefore, the attraction of the currency is BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate Decreasing exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will It is good for Japanese exports and international Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is As a result, the company profits are So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt- Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 So when the inflation is happening, the price level is Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short

西方经济学文献综述范文大全

找一个行业来证明是哪一类型的市场?

可以 题材不限。

不管什么类型的论文,差不多都有一个 格式和规范,如果内容都准备好了,可以上学术堂 上看看论文的格式 和注意事项差不多就可以了!相信填那些字够了!

现代西方经济学派对通货膨胀问题有哪些不同看法  不同学派对通货膨胀的起因有不同的学说。  货币主义  对于通货膨胀最广为人知也最直接的理论是:通货膨胀导因于货币供给率高于经济规模增长。此说主张以比较GDP平减指数与货币供给增长来作测量,并由中央银行设定利率来维持货币数量。此观点不同于下述之奥地利学派者在于其着重于货币之数量而非实质。在货币主义架构下,货币的聚集是重点所在。   货币数量理论,简单的说,就是经济体所耗货币总量取决于现存货币总量。下列公式创自此说:p 为一般消费品物价水平,dc为消费品总需求量,而sc消费品总供给量。 《中国当代通货膨胀理论研究》  公式背后的观念是:在消费品总供应量对消费品总需求量相对下降,或消费品总需求量对消费品总供应量相对上升时,一般消费品物价会随之提高。基于总开销主要基于现存 商品与通货膨胀  货币总量的观点,经济学者们以货币总量计算消费品总需求量。于是乎,他们断定总开销与消费品总需求量随著货币总量提高。于是相信货币数量理论的学者们同样也相信物价上涨的唯一原因就是经济成长(表示消费品总供给量正提高),以及央行因之以货币政策提高现存货币总量。   以此观点来说,通货膨胀的最根本原因是货币供给量多于需求量,于是“通货膨胀是一定会到处发生的货币现象”,弗里德曼如是说。意指通货膨胀的控制有赖于货币上与财政上的限制。政府不可令借支过于容易,其自身亦不可超额贷款。此观点着重于中央政府预算赤字与利率,以及经济生产力,也就是由生产成本(总供应)所推动的通货膨胀( cost - pull inflation )。  新凯恩斯主义  通货膨胀指标图、书籍、漫画图、问卷图(20张)新凯恩斯主义(neo-keynesian) 依新凯恩斯主义,通货膨胀有三种主要的形式,为robert gordon所说的“三角模型”的一部分:   需求拉动通胀(demand-pull inflation)——通货膨胀发生于因GDP所产生的高需求与低失业,又称菲利普斯曲线型通货膨胀。   成本推动通胀(cost-push inflation) ——今称“供给震荡型通货膨胀”(supply shock inflation),发生于油价突然提高时。   固有型通货膨胀(built-in inflation)—— 因合理预期所引起,通常与物价/薪资螺旋(price/wage spiral)有关。工人希望持续提高薪资,其费用传递至产品成本与价格,形成恶性循环。固有型通货膨胀反应已发生的事件,被视为残留型通货膨胀,又称“惯性通货膨胀”,甚至是“结构性通货膨胀”。   这三型的通货膨胀可随时合并解释现行的通货膨胀率。然而,大多时前两种型态的通货膨胀(及其实际的通货膨胀率)会影响固有型通货膨胀的大小:持续性的高(或低)通货膨胀带动提高(或降低)固有型通货膨胀。   三角模型中有两项基本元素:沿著菲利普斯曲线移动,如低失业率刺激升高通货膨胀;以及转移其曲线,如通货膨胀升高或降低对失业率的影响。  菲利普斯曲线通货膨胀说  菲利普斯曲线  理论主要集中于货币供给:通货膨胀可由流通中的货币数量与经济供应力(其潜在输出)相关。这点在政府(可能于对外战争或内战期间)印行超额的货币引起金融危机时特别鲜明,有时会导致恶性通货膨胀(恶性通货膨胀是一种不能控制的通货膨胀,在物价很快地上涨的情况下,就使货币失去价值。恶性通货膨胀没有一个普遍公认的标准界定。一般界定为每月通货膨胀50%或更多,但很多时在宽松上使用的比率会更低。多数的经济学家认为的定义为“一个没有任何平衡趋势的通货膨胀循环”。) 使得物价飞涨(或达每月上涨一倍的程度)。   货币供给在程度温和的通货膨胀中也扮演主要角色,但其重要性有争议。货币主义经济学家相信其具强力连结;相反地,凯恩斯主义经济学者强调总体需求在其中的角色,而货币供给仅只是总体需求的决定性因素。   凯恩斯主义解释法的基本观念为通货膨胀与失业率之间的关系,称之为菲利普斯曲线模型。此模型在物价稳定度与失业率之间权衡(trade off);故为将失业率降至最低,可允许一定程度的通货膨胀。菲利普斯曲线模型极佳的描述出美国在1960年代的经历,但不足以诠释其于1970年所遭遇到的通货膨胀升高与经济停滞结合。现今菲利普斯曲线用以关联薪资总额增长与一般性通货膨胀的关系而非失业率与通货膨胀率。   菲利普斯曲线之位移   因为供给震荡与通货膨胀已成为经济活动的固定因素,当代整体经济使用‘位移’过的菲利普斯曲线(以及物价稳定度与失业率之间的取舍平衡)来描述通货膨胀。供给震荡意指1970年的油价震荡,而固有型的通货膨胀意指物价/薪资循环与通货膨胀预期,表示在正常经济情况下容忍通货膨胀。因此,菲利普斯曲线仅代表三角模式中的需求拉动通胀。   另一个凯恩斯主义的观点为潜在产出(有时称为国内生产总值)——也就是达到最高生产力的状况下经济体之GDP水准——为习惯性且固有的限制。此种输出标准对应于nairu——固有失业率、自然失业率或全职性的失业率。在如此架构下,固有型通货膨胀率为内因性地取决于经济体内的劳动量:   GDP超出其潜在水准(且失业率低于nairu)时。该理论指出,在其他条件相等时,通货膨胀随着供应者提高价格而加剧,且固有型通货膨胀会更恶化。进一步将导致菲利普斯曲线朝着高通胀与高失业摆向滞胀。这种“加速型通货膨胀”曾见于1960年代的美国,当时越战的开销(由小额加税扺消)在数年间将失业率压低在百分之四以下。   GDP低于其潜在水准(且失业率高于nairu),而其他条件相等时,通货膨胀随著供应者企图降价,让市场消化超额数量,并低估固有型通货膨胀而减低;即阻止通货膨胀。将导致菲利普斯曲线朝著低通胀与低失业摆向期望的方向。阻止通货膨胀曾见于1980年代的美国,当时美联储主席保罗?沃尔克的抗通胀措施带来数年的高失业率,其中两年曾高达百分之十。   GDP相等于其潜在水准(且失业率也等于nairu)时,只要没有供给震荡,通货膨胀率即不变。长期说来,大多数的新凯恩斯总体经济学者视菲利普斯曲线为垂直。也就是说,若通货膨胀率高到可以压过失业率的情况下,失业率为其前提,且等相于nairu。   然而,以该理论作为政策制订的标的存在缺陷。潜在产出(以及nairu)的数量通常为未知,且会随时间改变。另外,通货膨胀率的发生并不对称,上升的速度较下降为快;更糟的是还趋向随政策而变。例如说,在撒切尔首相主政时期,失业者发觉自己处于结构性失业,也就是无法在不列颠经济体内找到适才适所的就业机会,当时英国的高失业率可能提高了nairu(且潜力降低)。在一经济体避免跨越高通货膨胀的门坎时,结构性失业率的提高暗示着只有小量的人力可在nairu中找到就业机会。   若假定nairu与潜在产出两者皆具独特性且迅速达成,则绝大多数的非凯恩斯主义的通货膨胀理论可理解为包含于新凯恩斯主义的观点中。当"供给面"固定时,通货膨胀取决于总体需求(aggregate demand)。固定供给面也暗示著公私机构的开销定然相互冲突。故政府的赤字开支会对私营机构产生排挤效果,而对就业水准并无影响。也就是说,资金供给与金融政策为唯一可影响通货膨胀者。  供给面学说  供给面(Supply side)经济学说假定通货膨胀一定由资金供给过剩与资金需求不足所引起。对这两个因素而言,资金数量纯粹只是标的物。于是,欧洲于中世纪的黑死病流行期间所发生的通货膨胀,可视为因资金需求降低所引起;而1970年代的通货膨胀可归因于美国脱离布雷顿森林体系所订定的金本位后所产生的资金供给过剩。供给学派假定,资金供给与需求同时提高时,不会导致通货膨胀。  国际资本流动  通胀,即通货膨胀,指商品和劳务的货币价格总水平持续明显上涨的过程。如果一个国家的通货膨胀率相对于与其进行贸易的国家的通货膨胀率增加,在其他因素相同时,他的经常帐户余额将会下降。由于本国通货膨胀率高,这个国家的消费者和公司很可能会购买更多的国外商品,同时该国对其他国家的出口额会下降。相反,如果一个国家的通货膨胀率相对于其进行贸易的国家的通货膨胀率下降,在其他因素相同时,他的经常帐户余额将会增加。因为本国通货膨胀率相对较低,这个国家的消费者和公司很可能会更多购买本国商品,同时,其他国家对该商品的进口额将会增加。

西方经济学研究报告论文范文大全

西方就业理论演进剖析 就业这一重大的社会经济问题长期以来一直受到西方经济学家的关注,从而形成了各具特色的就业理论。西方经济学家对就业问题的长期研究和探索,形成了适应市场经济需求的多角度、多层次的就业理论。如古典经济学派的就业理论,凯恩斯的充分就业理论,新古典综合学派的就业理论,新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论等。 (一)古典学派的就业理论 萨伊定律是古典经济学派就业理论的基石,其基本内涵是供给创造需求。该学派经济学家代表人物有马歇尔、庇古等,他们从完全竞争的市场结构出发,认为市场上产品价格和货币工资可以根据市场供求状况自发调整。劳动供给和劳动需求相互作用决定实际工资和就业水平,供求平衡时的就业量就是充分就业水平。进而认为,只要不存在工资刚性,工资率可以自由伸缩,市场机制能自由的发挥调节作用,可使一切可供使用的劳动力资源都被用于生产,劳动力市场总能达到就业均衡,长期持续的非自然失业不可能存在,存在的只是自愿失业和短期性摩擦性失业。 他们认为,解决失业问题的办法是消除货币工资的刚性,使货币工资能够随市场的需求而发生相应的变化。古典学派将自由竞争作为前提条件,主张市场调节平衡就业,否定了失业问题的普遍性。但换个角度理解失业的产生仍然是有可能的,失业问题正是竞争不充分所导致的结果,要解决失业问题首先就应该解决劳动力市场竞争的不充分问题。 (二)凯恩斯的就业理论 凯恩斯就业理论是以有效需求原则为核心,认为就业量取决于有效需求。失业之所以持续不断,是由于资本主义社会一般情况均存在“有效需求不足”。即总供给价格和总需求价格达到均衡时的总需求不足,由此造成较多的社会失业,即不充分就业。凯恩斯主义的促进就业理论实际上主张降低工资,即在不降低名义工资的情况下,降低实际工资。但前提是扩大总需求,因为总需求的扩大,必然会导致通货膨胀,工人名义工资不变,但实际工资相对减少。为实现充分就业,凯恩斯认为,必须摒弃自由放任的经济政策,依靠国家干预,提出需求管理政策,从而达到促进生产,增加就业的目的。 (三)新古典综合学派的就业理论 20世纪60年代末,各主要资本主义国家的经济相继陷入“滞胀”的困境,凯恩斯理论失灵了。因而以托宾、杜生贝等为代表的新古典综合学派经济学家提出“结构性失业问题”,力图用市场结构的变化来解释失业和通货膨胀并发症,认为是微观市场的不完全性和结构变化引起滞胀。得出结构性失业是因经济结构的变化而引起的劳动力供给和需求的结构失调,结构性失业的存在必然引起失业与工作空位并存。由于强大的工会力量使工资易涨不易跌,所以尽管社会上存在着失业,但货币工资却不下降,而只要存在工作空位,货币工资就会迅速上升。于是,失业与工作空位并存就转化为失业与货币工资上涨并存,进而转化为失业与通货膨胀的并发症。该理论主张从就业内容或就业结构角度来解决结构性失业问题,如政府要指导收入政策,即政府要采取措施限制工资和物价的上升,以缓和通胀;注重完善劳动力市场,缓和因劳工市场技术结构变化造成的失业;适当修改完善失业补助金制度,激励失业者就业。 (四)新凯恩斯主义的工资粘性就业理论 新凯恩斯主义的劳动市场理论主要包括名义工资粘性和实际工资粘性两方面。名义工资粘性是由于长期劳动合同的存在和交错调整工资所致,工资通常是由于工会与企业通过谈判订立的合同而固定下来的。在合同有效期限内工资不能随市场供求行情而调整。即使没有工会组织未签订劳动合同的企业,因受有合同的企业粘性工资的影响,工资也不会轻易变动。隐性合同理论认为,雇员与雇主之间随着时间的推移,它们之间会形成某种稳定收入的非正式契约,从而使工资具有粘性。隐性合同导致失业的原因是由于在非对称信息条件下,厂商和工人因信息有限,决定了均衡合同出现无效率的非充分就业,因而通常会解除工人。效率工资论则说明了雇主会主动付给员工高工资,以提高雇员的生产积极性,提高跳槽和偷懒的机会成本同时吸引有能力及高技术人才。内部人——外部人理论则指出,内部人由于受到劳动转换成本的保护,在工资决定上有着重要的讨价还价能力,具有较强的就业优势和地位。致使工资调整主要取决于在职人员而不是失业者,于是,便可能出现非自愿性失业。因而解决失业问题政府就要干预工资合同,要减少工资粘性,增加工资弹性,使工资能够适时适度灵活调整。 (五)反古典经济学的就业理论 “反古典”学派主张放弃自由放任的经济政策,借鉴日本的经济模式及行政主导性的市场经济模式。在就业问题上,强调在保证企业自由用人和求职者自主择业的前提下,在保持企业活力和充分发挥市场机制作用的基础上,国家对市场活动进行宏观调控和政策指导。同时建立稳定就业,劳动力流动平缓、劳资合同和工资差距较小的劳动力模式。

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely But others don’t agree with the John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher But M Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen However, that will not One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take So the inflation is not good news for JWhat cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $00 bills that are able to buy them If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $ However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of (InflationD, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’ But the price level decreases from P to P’ So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of But in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $0, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $ This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on (InflationD, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of Is deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was So the supply of goods obviously went Therefore, the price level Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be The economy contracted because of lack of People may lose their Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their (InflationD, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest Obvious from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this That would activate the aggregate (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic So the purpose of the policy has not achieved The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the Interest rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange Foreign exchange is one type of financial An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the If the interest rate drops, the return will Therefore, the attraction of the currency is BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate Decreasing exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will It is good for Japanese exports and international Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is As a result, the company profits are So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt- Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 So when the inflation is happening, the price level is Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short

经济全球化时代的后发优势与发展中国家的对策 ● 论文报告 ● 作品简介 根据联合国开发计划署发表的1999年度《人类发展报告》,占全球1/5的人口生活在收入水平最高的国家,他们拥有全球国内生产总值的86%,全球出口市场的82%,外国直接投资的68%,全球电话总数的74%;

西方经济学论文范文

Summarize the key message of an article called” Land of the Rising Price”:A burst of inflation has happened in Japan in 2008, which makes the price A broker named Christopher Wood points out that it is definitely But others don’t agree with the John Richards, who works in the Royal Bank of Scotland in Tokyo, claims that the recovery in Japan has depended on exports too However, the demand from Asia, America and Europe has slowed this The rising price causes to reduce companies’ profit margins, while customers’ purchasing power also Richard Jerram, who works in Macquarie Capital Securities in Tokyo, suggests that when the value of savings is changed by inflation, households are possible to transfer savings into other assets in order to get higher But M Wood argues that the bad inflation, which makes the various costs increase, is another type of That will cause rapid and deep change in Japan according to the He strongly believes that the rapid and deep change will happen However, that will not One of important reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by the central bank as quickly as the bank would Another reason is that if money remains cheap, corporate reform is impossible to take So the inflation is not good news for JWhat cause deflation in Japan:Deflation is a process of falling price, which is the opposite of Price levels are highly connected with the relationship between the supply and the To understand and express the definition of deflation simply, there is assumption that we are on an isolated island and there are 10 same goods and ten $00 bills that are able to buy them If everyone wants to get one of them, it is obvious that each good costs $ However, if some people don’t want to get it, the price in each good will decrease because sellers want to sell all of So they have to decrease the price in order to encourage people who don’t want to buy any more buy the This is one of types of deflation, which is caused by decreasing the demand of (InflationD, ND)To express the theory more clearly, let’s see a diagram In this diagram, the horizon axis y represents total product (national income), while the straight axis represents price AD represents aggregate demand curve, while AS represents aggregate supply When the aggregate demand curve drops from AD to AD’, the total product, which depends on the point of intersection between AD curve and AS curve, don’t increase, is still y’ But the price level decreases from P to P’ So this is deflation caused by decreasing the demand of But in the isolated island, if the quantity of money drops to $0, while the number of goods is 10, the price in each good will decreases to $ This is another type of deflation, which is caused by reducing the supply of By the way, the supply of money can also be dropped if someone holds half of money on the island and refuses to spend it on (InflationD, ND)According to the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, it is clear that the consumer price fluctuated at very low level during the last ten That means the purchasing power is low, which is a sign of The situation in the last ten years is caused by decreasing the demand of goods or decreasing the supply of Is deflation good for an economy?In fact, whether deflation is good or not depends on the cause of the If deflation is caused by increasing the goods supply, it will be For example, in the late 19th century, with the industrial revolution happening, the productivity of goods was So the supply of goods obviously went Therefore, the price level Decreasing the goods demand or increasing the goods supply has the same If, however, deflation is caused by reducing money supply, it will be The economy contracted because of lack of People may lose their Thus, banks don’t loan money because people have no ability to pay off Therefore, money supply will fall again, while more people may lose their (InflationD, ND)BOJ’s monetary policyMonetary policy is generally classified as an expansionary policy and a contractionary A policy is referred to as contractionary if it decreases the supply of money or increases the interest An expansionary policy raises the supply of money, or drops the interest Obvious from the line chart in the article called” Land of the Rising Price”, the gross interest income dropped quickly from 1994 to In other words, the interest rate in the 12 years decreased That means BOJ’s monetary policy was an expansionary Therefore, the supply of money could be increased using this That would activate the aggregate (Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia, 2008)Though the policy was on the correct track, I don’t think BOJ was successful in solving the deflation One of important reason is that the time of reducing interest rate was more than 10 years, which was too That means BOJ did not find a suitable interest rate during the 12 Another important reason is that when a burst of inflation has happened in 2008, the aggregate demand is not activated The inflation relies on Japan imports mostly, rather than increasing domestic So the purpose of the policy has not achieved The third reason is that the interest rate can’t be increased by BOJ as quickly as BOJ would Bad overseas and domestic economic situation prevent from increasing the interest So generally, BOJ was not successful in solving the Interest rate, exports and exchange rateThe interest rate has very strong effect on the exchange As we all know, the interest rate level depends on the relationship between the demand and the supply in foreign exchange Foreign exchange is one type of financial An investor chooses and holds it because it brings capital Actually, the return of currency in each country is measured by the interest rate in each country’s financial If the interest rate of currency in one country rises, the return will also rise, attracting investors to buy the If the interest rate drops, the return will Therefore, the attraction of the currency is BOJ has kept the interest rate low, which is the lowest of any G8 That means the interest rate of Japanese Yen is lower than many other countries, which leads to increasing capital outflows, reducing capital Thus, investors who hold Japanese Yen will sell the currency, which will make the exchange rate Decreasing exchange rate of Japanese Yen always leads to rising Japanese exports and reducing the First, with the depreciation of Japanese Yen, price of domestic goods is lower than price of foreign So the demand of domestic goods will increase, while the demand of foreign goods will It is good for Japanese exports and international Second, with the increase of the demand of domestic goods, the price level will go up, while the employment will rise, increasing the national The behavior of companies and consumersIn deflation period, the price in the market is As a result, the company profits are So a company is trying its best to make the cost of production lower in order to remain One way to achieve the aim is to reduce the nominal Therefore, people spend less money in purchasing so that they will show the sign of belt- Actually, the deflation lasted for more than 10 So when the inflation is happening, the price level is Therefore, companies expected that the increased price level might solve the problem caused by So they have struggled to pay more wages and hire more workers so that the cost is But unfortunately, rising price level don’t solve the Therefore, company profits are decreasing because the cost is increasing in the inflation In fact, in the short run, even though inflation is happening, people are not responding to that because they don’t know the price in future will be higher than current price, at least in the short

西方经济学,就是被运用于西方市场经济国家的经济学,有市场经济学之称。以1776年亚当·斯密《国富论》的出版为标志,西方经济学历经了200多年的风雨沧桑。在这个不长不短的历史进程中,从斯密、李加图、萨伊、穆勒、马尔萨斯、马歇尔到凯恩斯、弗里德曼、萨谬尔森、卢卡斯、斯蒂格利茨,经济学大师辈出;从古典经济学、新古典经济学到凯恩斯主义经济学、新古典宏观经济学和新凯恩斯主义经济学,经济学流派林立。百花齐放,百家争鸣,带来西方经济学的不断创新和发展,以致于文献上有“经济学帝国”之称。西方经济学它主要介绍流行于西方市场经济国家的现代经济理论与经济政策。它既研究古老而又现代的家政管理,又研究多姿多彩的企业经营,还大胆解说政府日益加码的经济调控。它既赞美价格机制这只“看不见的手”的效率优势,也无情的剖析市场机制在不少领域资源配置上的诸多缺陷。主要包括微观经济学和宏观经济学。微观经济学--研究家庭、厂商和市场合理配置经济资源的科学--以单个经济单位的经济行为为对象;以资源的合理配置为解决的主要问题;以价格理论为中心理论;以个量分析为方法;其基本假定是市场出清、完全理性、充分信息。宏观经济-研究国民经济的整体运行中充分利用经济资源的科学—以国民经济整体的运行为对象;以资源的充分利用为解决的主要问题;以收入理论为中心理论;以总量分析为方法,其基本假定为市场失灵、政府有效。从方法上看,西方经济学运用实证分析和规范分析梁中方法。实证分析企图超脱于一切价值判断,只研究经济本身的内在规律,并据此分析和预测人们的经济行为效果,着重回答“是什么”的问题。实证分析的步骤。定义----对经济学所研究的各种变量规定明确的含义;这里的变量有内生变量和外生变量、流量和存量;内生变量是一种理论内所要解释的变量,外生变量是一种在理论内影响其他变量而他本身则由理论外的因素来决定的变量;存量是通常在一定时点上才能有效测定的变量,流量是指通常在一定时期内才能有效测定的变量;假设----某一理论所适用的条件,在假设条件下得出结论,就象自然科学在严格的假定条件下分析自然现象一样,事实上整个社会即使天然的实验室;假说----未经证明的各个经济变量之间的关系;预测----根据假说对未来进行预期规范分析通过设定一些价值判断和好与坏的标准,作为经济理论的前提和制定政策的依据,并研究如何才能符合这些标准,着重回答“应该是什么”的问题。西方经济学德发展可以主要分为三个部分,即古典经济学、新古典经济学与现代经济学。古典经济学—从17世纪中期开始到19世纪70年代为止—包括英国经济学家斯密、李嘉图、西尼尔、穆勒、马尔萨斯,法国经济学家萨伊—以斯密为代表,其1776年出版的《国富论》被称为经济学上的第一次革命,建立了以自由放任为中心的经济学体系,他标志着经济学的诞生—代表性的教科书是穆勒《政治经济学原理及其在社会哲学上的应用》流行了20年。新古典经济学—从19世纪的“边际革命”开始到20世纪30年代为止—包括英国经济学家杰文史、马歇尔,法国经济学家瓦尔拉斯—边际效用价值论的提出被说成是经济学上的第二次革命,他标志着新古典经济学的开始,马歇尔在1890年发表的《经济学原理》是其代表性的教科书。现代经济学—开始于20世纪30年代凯恩史主义的产生---包括英国经济学家凯恩史、琼·罗宾逊、斯拉伐,以及美国经济学家萨缪尔森、弗里德曼和卢卡斯—其中凯恩斯在1936年出版的的《就业利息和货币通论》标志着当代经济学的产生,该书与爱因斯坦的《相对论》、达尔文的《物种起源》、马克思的《资本论》被人们称着改变世界历史的四大著作;而萨缪尔森的1948年开始发行的《经济学》至今已出第十六版,是第三本好教科书

西方经济学论文对边际生产力理论的探讨一、边际生产力理论的局限性  边际生产力理论是新古典经济理论的基石。边际生产力理论是用于阐明在生产中相互合作的各种生产要素或资源所得到的报酬的一种方法。通常情况,当其他要素数量不变,而单位某种生产要素离开(或加入)生产过程时所引起的商品产值的减少(或增加)量,就等于该种生产要素一个单位的服务报酬或其他报酬。这里很明显,决定生产要素的报酬是取决于生产过程中的技术条件。在新古典理论中,一般用生产函数来表明这种投入和产出的技术关系。边际生产力理论用数学公式来表达就是:  厂商的生产函数是Y=F(x[,1],x[,2],x[,3],x[,4]……),Y是生产过程中的产出,x[,1],x[,2]……是生产过程中的投入,F是生产函数。一般情况下,生产函数满足下面假设:产出对生产要素的投入满足一阶偏导数大于零,二阶偏导数小于零,即附图。一阶偏导数大于零表示,在其他投入不变的情况下,任何一种生产要素等量增加,必然带来实物产出的增加,即边际产品大于零,这一点是非常容易理解的,可以说是市场经济条件下的一个公理,厂商没有必要在产量减少时增加一种要素的投入量。二阶偏导数小于零也就是生产函数的凸性假设,表明一种生产要素的边际产品会随该要素的投入量增加而递减的,这是一个比一阶导数大于零较强的假定,这就是经济学中常常使用的边际产品递减规律。“实际上这并不是一个规律,而是大多数生产过程所具有的共同特性”。(注:范里安:《微观经济学:现代观点》,上海三联出版社、上海人民出版社,1994年,第395页。)在生产过程中,任何一种要素的报酬超过了在少使用这种要素时损失的产值时,那么就会少使用一单位该种生产要素,并且如果这种不平衡没有消除,就会继续减少使用这种生产要素,直到相等为止,即:附图,(注:实际上应该要素的报酬应该等于要素的边际生产收入(marginal revenue of product),而不是边际产值(value ofmarginal product),由于新古典的边际生产力理论主要是研究是完全竞争市场,因此二者在量上是相等。)其中w[,i]是x[,i]这种生产要素的报酬(价格),P为产品的价格。这个结论可以很简单地从给定生产函数和厂商利润最大化的条件下得出。  边际生产力理论有两要素形式和多要素形式来说明生产要素的需求量。两要素是指总资本和总劳动,在这种形式下,生产函数的形式是Y=F(L,K),L、K分别是生产过程中投入的劳动和资本的数量。多要素是指在生产过程中使用的可分辨要素的种类,就是在本文开始部分所采用的那种形式。两要素形式可以使边际生产力理论进行简化,但是这个模型存在着一个致命的弱点,就是如何将一个厂商投入的不同质的劳动和不同质的资本进行加总,(注:加总问题是边际生产力理论所遇到的最大的困难,边际生产力需要一个总量劳动和资本的概念,资本的加总只能通过对其价值(格)进行加总的形式来实现,而资本的价格受到资本的边际生产力(利息率)的影响,即维克赛尔效应,从而使边际生产力理论成为一个循环论证。)这也是在上个世纪剑桥资本争论最为激烈的一个问题。多要素形式避免了对不同的劳动和资本进行加总,但这种形式却远离现实,因为这种形式会使生产函数连续可微分的性质难以成立:许多厂商的投入要素都是固定比例,不可能单独地增减一种生产要素而不增减其他的生产要素,即生产要素之间不存在替代性,这样没有办法得出一种要素的边际生产力,因此边际生产力的理论适用范围非常有限。本文在这里分析的是边际生产力理论的适用范围,因此,在这里采用的是两要素生产模型,将厂商的投入抽象地分为劳动和资本,而如何将异质的资本和劳动加总的问题给抛开,而抽象地认为劳动和资本是同质的。这样边际生产力的模型就可以描述成:对于一个厂商的生产函数Y=F(L,K),劳动者的报酬也就是工资附图,资本的报酬也就是利润(息)率附图。二、总额相符问题(Adding-up Problem)  边际生产力在直觉上非常容易被人接受的,因为它体现了一个基本的经济理论原理,那就是其他要素固定不变时,一种要素投入所带来的边际收益等于边际成本,从而使厂商的利润最大化。但是这里存在着一个问题就是:如果每个要素的每一单位都按照相应的边际生产力得到相应报酬,那么厂商的产量是否等于所有的生产要素的边际产品,这就是Y=MP[,L]×L+MP[,K]×K。在1894年,威克斯蒂德在《论分配法则的协调》中详细地论述了这一观点,“这些分配份额加起来等于每个厂商的净产量。”(注:《帕尔格雷夫经济学词典》第1卷,经济科学出版社,1986年,第22-23页;熊彼特:《经济分析史》(第3卷),商务印书馆,1996年,第407-409页。)这个结论的详细描述是:在生产函数是一次(线性)齐次性时,各种投入的生产要素的边际产品乘以其投入量的总和正好等于其产值,这就是总额相符,也就是欧拉定理(Euler's theorem),从而使边际生产力在理论上更加完美。如果用产品的价格和生产要素的报酬来表示,就可以得到各种投入要素的报酬总和正好等于总产值。(注:在欧拉定理Y=MP[,L]×L+MR[,K]×K两边同时乘以产品的价格P,就可以得到Y×P=w×L+r×K。)厂商的(超额)利润等于厂商的收入(总产值)减去各种生产要素的报酬总和(总成本),即总额相符,厂商的利润为零。但是这里存在着一个条件,就是生产函数必须是线性齐次的,即生产是规模报酬不变的。  在新古典经济理论中,通常用生产函数的齐次性来表示规模报酬。齐次性是一个数学概念,它表明一个函数F(x,y)如果满足条件:P(ax,ay)=a[n]F(x,y),这个函数就是n次齐次性。如果n=1时,就是一次齐次性,也称为线性齐次性,即F(ax,ay)=aF(x,y)。如果一个生产函数是n次齐次生产函数,那么当n>1时,该生产函数就是规模报酬递增,n<1时,是规模报酬递减,n=1时,是规模报酬不变。这就意味着总额相符只有在规模报酬不变时,才能成立。同样可以容易证明出:当n<1时,即存在规模报酬递减时,厂商的总产值就小于各种生产要素的得到报酬总和,存在着“总额不足”;当n>1时,即存在规模报酬递增时,厂商的总产值就大于各种生产要素的得到报酬总和,存在着“总额过剩”。那么,谁来弥补“不足”和得到“过剩”呢?很明显,这两种情况下,边际生产力理论存在着重大的缺陷,因为它与规模报酬递增和递减相矛盾,除非可以证明资本主义经济中不存在着这两种情况。在经济中存在规模报酬递减的可能不大,如果存在规模报酬递减,就可以把大企业分割成小企业来生产,而在现实经济中很少出现这种现象。所以一般认为经济是规模报酬不变和递增的。三、规模报酬递增现象的存在性  规模报酬递增是现代经济中普遍存在的现象,是经济发展的必然结果。从资本主义发展的历史来看,生产是逐渐集中,大规模生产可以实行分工,采用先进设备,聘请高级专家,节省管理费用,都能提高生产效率,这些足以表明现代化的生产肯定是存在着规模递增现象。斯密最早提出分工会导致专业化,从而提高劳动生产率,而使规模报酬呈递增。斯拉法在《经济学杂志》1926年12月发表了《竞争条件下的报酬规律》,指出“在纯粹竞争的条件下,只要产量增加伴之有内部经济,厂商便不会处于完全均衡状态”,“递增收益也是同完全竞争的假设不协调的”。从此也就揭开了不完全竞争理论的序幕。也有一些经济学家承认存在着规模报酬递增现象,但是“根据复制的观点,不变规模报酬是最自然现象,但这并不等于说其他情况不可能发生……递增的规模报酬通常在一定的产量范围内适用。”用复制来说明不变规模报酬的存在是有疑问的,这种复制是远离现实的,因为在现实世界,人们基本上看不到厂商扩大产量的方法是在原有规模上扩大,而不是去建造新厂复制原来的工厂,范里安这种认为不变规模报酬是犯了形而上学的错误。但是不管怎么很难否认规模报酬递增的存在。四、边际生产力理论对规模报酬递增的解释  既然规模报酬递增是现代化生产中必然存在的现象,那么边际生产力理论必然要对这种与其相矛盾的规模报酬递增给以解释。  一种解释认为经济中不存在规模报酬递增的现象,之所以产生规模报酬递增,是由于有一种促使规模报酬递增的生产要素被人们忽视了,只要加入新的生产要素,生产函数就不会存在规模递增现象:两种要素的生产函数解释不了现实经济的真实情况,在现代经济中,生产要素也在多元化,科学技术、知识、教育等因素加入到生产函数中去,生产函数成了Y=F(L,K,T,I,E……),从而使生产函数变得越来越复杂,这样处理之后,生产函数就成为线性齐次性,就可以满足于总额相符,从而就使边际生产力学说更加完美,甚至进一步找出科技、知识、教育等在生产过程中的作用来。这种学说存在着一个明显的错误,根据生产要素的性质,生产要素起着两个方面的作用,一是生产过程的投入物,二是要在生产过程中得到相应的报酬。尽管我们可以通过复杂的计算得出科技、知识和教育的边际生产力,但是是谁根据这些要素的边际生产力而得到它的报酬呢?是工人,还是资本家,还是科学家?另外,科技和知识都是体现在劳动和资本中,不能从劳动和资本中独立出来,生产函数的形式应该是Y=F[L(T,I,E……),K(T,I,E……)],这样,从数学的逻辑上分析,自变量之间必然是独立的,即有完全的自由度。如果技术、知识、教育和劳动、资本之间存在着相关性,它们就不可能同时作为生产函数的自变量,即同时成为生产要素。因此,用多生产要素的生产函数使之成为线性齐次性,从而可以使之满足总额相符的方法,是存在着逻辑矛盾。

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