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Research on the construction safety management of Civil EngineeringIn recent years, the construction accident in civil engineering in our country often This not only caused casualties, also caused great loss of national property, and resulting in a very bad social Therefore, in our country, the construction units in the civil engineering construction projects, shouldstrengthen the construction safety management, all aspects ofsecurity control for engineering, to prevent dangerous accidentsin the end it The cause of the civil engineering constructionaccidents are in many In order to enhance security,should be combined with the characteristics of construction projects and the enterprise's internal and external conditions, the rational allocation of production factors, optimization of management In order to realize the construction safetymanagement, construction units should establish a safety management system of a project, it should be carried out from the following aspects:A construction safety consciousness, cultivate the modern safety science theory, occurrence of unsafe human behavior To implement safety management, it should becombined with psychology, behavioral science to strengthen the education and training of employees in production safety,improve the consciousness of safe production, so as to guide the safety production behavior of For the construction enterprises should strengthen safety awareness and educationproject personnel, developing the regular safety education to the construction personnel involved in the project, and to carry outsecurity Three level education to the new participate in the work of the operating personnel; often transform types of employees, should be safety training for new types of work, makeoperation personnel matters needing attention can be familiar with the safe operation of In order to make safe productionconsciousness win support among the people, enterprisemanagement personnel but also in engineering project, using a variety of promotional tools to start a variety of education,cultivate the construction personnel safety Andin the management of enterprises, the production safety systemthought Leaders at all levels and enterprises in issuing the project production task, should also carry out safety Such as the production safety requirements to the construction personnel, so conducive to safe thought into the production of management, let each employee has consciously in the psychological sense of Two, the establishment of management system for safety in production in addition to strengthen production safety education and awareness of construction project staff, should alsoestablish a safety management system, protect the system from the construction enterprise safety in production In order toavoid the frequent occurrence of sudden accident, the construction enterprise should according to the project, to develop a comprehensive, the system of safety management,and invest the necessary manpower and funds to ensure the implementation of the Ensure the production safetyconstruction from the system implementation, the project section of construction enterprises should establish the safety inspectionsystem, and regularly to the project construction of the security Make a clear record of project construction process,record the dangerous post, and regularly check the Self evaluation and construction team every week to organize asafety activities, the project department to make regular safetyevaluation for project Construction enterprises in theconstruction of civil engineering, in order to establish a safety management system, need to make corresponding technical measures for safety management system, a comprehensivescientific standard for Therefore, the safety work of construction enterprise project technical measures should be prior to commencement of As for engineering and technical measures should be strict examination and approval, the approval before If the design changes during construction, corresponding safety technical measures should be coordinated with the adjustment,will The safety technical measures enacted personnel andparticipation, should fully understand the project as the construction scheme, construction environment, the actualoperation has, and combined with relevant laws and regulations or the security policy to establish safety technical measures,which can ensure the safety In civil engineering construction of large, corresponding safety technical measuresshould be formulated more comprehensive and more specific,must be carried out through the whole process of construction,and mainly covers to other engineering To establish the system of safety management, construction enterprises should also be strict safety As before the construction of the project, technical personnel should to the technical measures for the construction Such as technical personnel issue written materials relatedto the construction personnel, and the implementation of safety technical measures of construction workers to regularly check;when technicians found construction personnel in violation oftechnical measure behavior, to give timely When theconstruction personnel technical mistakes when amended and supplemented In order to ensure the safety ofconstruction enterprises to implement, should take theseinspection of production safety measures the formation of rules and regulations, require employees to strictly abide by, so to ensure safety production At the same time, the construction enterprises can also follow the specific constructiondevelopment situation, formulate a set of safety technical measures linked to reward and punishment system, to strictly abide by the department or individual production safety, strictsecurity checks to reward, and if there are penalties for violations of the At the same time should have a goodproduction safety supervision work, and sent to the specialized production safety supervision When there is potential safety hazard factors in project development, should be timely analysis and inspection and make treatment immediately, so thatthe safety management to implement, implement the specificsystem, ensure the feasibility of production The range ofcivil engineering projects involved in the construction processmore widely, because the factors which affect the engineering safety But in the construction process, the occurrence of safety accidents is often unexpected, with occasional andunexpected These come unexpectedly accidents, serious damage often caused casualties and Three, strengthen the safety production and environment management in civil engineering construction process,environment is an important factor influencing the construction So in order to guarantee safety in production, enterprises should be to strengthen the management of construction As in the construction site, the unnecessary equipment and surplus materials, should be timely In the pile construction materials in order to keep the construction site, the patency of the road accident, ensure to timely rescue, this is to protect the safety measures to And construction enterprises shouldstrictly abide by the rules and regulations, which occurred on theconstruction site of the waste, garbage bag, cement, waste materials and other items should be clear, it can keep the siteclean, to create a civilized construction environment for safe Create a safe production environment construction enterprises, should also be reflected in the risk disposal of For some such as the construction of electricity,dangerous equipment, cloth rod is used, should by the competent department of enterprise safety approval approval,the approval before they can be put into use And in the process of construction of civil engineering, a comprehensive analysis of the conditions of construction Some of the effects of environmental factors of the quality of construction, totake timely measures, and to conduct a comprehensivespecification, so that can realize the safe construction quality engineering to create good
building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones he construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings sidential buildings should suit family life ach flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as Housing is the living quarters for human beings he basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion he accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas he “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall he living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove he “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms he “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets he kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations he modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings ally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare 翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的 其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室 ，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。
Do not know you are now sub-professional or not, there is no favorite direction? But what direction is not very important, the key is to watch your hobbies and If you want to engage in design work, then my suggestion is study section, but a little better than schools, as after graduation in order to find a better design institute, incidentally, in a large design institute in the future will be to make money, oh (of course also very hard, huh, huh, there is no such thing as a free supper of them) If you want to work, it should learn many things point construction, especially as the construction of organizational design, over budget, such as construction management curriculum should be the awareness of many of the study point, because in ordinary schools after graduating from the undergraduate students could not enter the basic design are homes (unless there is either very, very good relations), more than九成are into the construction business, first choice for large enterprise infrastructure units (equivalent to Party), a relatively easy job, a lot of extra Followed by the construction of large-scale enterprises, fresh graduates can take part in a large-scale projects, will benefit, but in the construction business is very hard, did not want to do a good job Sunday, rest days and holidays ready, but there is not regular overtime preparation (usually no overtime Oh); again are real estate development companies, if they can into a large company (such as the top 30) is also good, but now very depressed real estate, it is estimated that there is a section of a time can缓过来 Finally, when the supervision, not recommended for fresh graduates go when supervision, because in China, supervision is a freak, not really learn new graduation At School during put好就行learn basic knowledge and useful qualification certificates have to have work experience, job experience, Do not need certification, basic In addition to looking for a job is a little bit with four English and computer 2 (the threshold of a lot of city), is the English have six titles when test useful (useless 4), all other spending "bought" by the all useless, does not recommend the The most crucial is that the solid foundation of knowledge! ! Benefit for life! Finally recommend a look at this article, very good!不知道你现在专业或没有，有没有喜欢的方向？但是方向是非常重要的，关键是看你的爱好和兴趣。如果你想从事设计工作，我的建议是考研的，但一个更好的学校，毕业后为了找到一个更好的设计研究所，顺便说一句，在一个大型设计院在未来会赚钱，哦（当然也很辛苦，嗯，嗯，有没有免费的晚餐，他们）。如果你要工作，要学习很多东西点建设，特别是施工组织设计，预算，如建设管理课程应该是认识的许多研究的重点，因为在普通学校毕业后的学生不能进入基础设计院（除非有任何非常，非常好的关系），超过九成是施工企业的第一选择，大型企业的基础设施的单位（相当于党），一个相对简单的工作，很多额外的钱。其次是施工的大型企业，应届毕业生可以参加一个大型项目，将受益，但在施工企业很难，不想做一个好工作，星期日休息日和节假日，准备好了，但不是经常加班制（通常没有加班费哦）；再次是房地产开发公司，如果他们能够成为一个大型公司（如30）也不错，但现在非常低迷的房地产，据估计，有一段时间可以缓过来。最后，当监管，不建议应届毕业生去当监督，因为在中国，监督是一个怪物，没有真正学到新毕业的事情。在校期间把好就行学基本知识和有用的资格证有工作经验，工作经验，不需要认证，基本没用。除了找工作有点四英语和计算机2（阈值的许多城市），是英国有六条有用（无用的4），所有其他支出“买”的一切无用的，不建议测试。最关键的是，扎实的基础知识！终身受益！最后，推荐看看这篇文章，很好！
building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones he construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings sidential buildings should suit family life ach flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as Housing is the living quarters for human beings he basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion he accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas he “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall he living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove he “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms he “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets he kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations he modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings ally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare 翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的 其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室 ，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。
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对土木工程的发展起关键作用的，首先是作为工程物质基础的土木建筑材料，其次是随之发展起来的设计理论和施工技术。每当出现新的优良的建筑材料时，土木工程就 会有飞跃式的发展。 人们在早期只能依靠泥土、木料及其它天然材料从事营造活动，后来出现了砖和瓦这种人工建筑材料，使人类第一次冲破了天然建筑材料的束缚。中国在公元前十一世纪 的西周初期制造出瓦。最早的砖出现在公元前五世纪至公元前三世纪战国时的墓室中。砖和瓦具有比土更优越的力学性能，可以就地取材，而又易于加工制作。 砖和瓦的出现使人们开始广泛地、大量地修建房屋和城防工程等。由此土木工程技术得到了飞速的发展。直至18～19世纪，在长达两千多年时间里，砖和瓦一直是土木工程的重要建筑材料，为人类文明作出了伟大的贡献，甚至在目前还被广泛采用。 钢材的大量应用是土木工程的第二次飞跃。 十七世纪70年代开始使用生铁、十九世纪初开始使用熟铁建造桥梁和房屋，这是钢结构出现的前奏。 从十九世纪中叶开始，冶金业冶炼并轧制出抗拉和抗压强度都很高、延性好、质量均匀的建筑钢材，随后又生产出高强度钢丝、钢索 。于是适应发展需要的钢结构得到蓬勃发展。除应用原有的粱、拱结构外，新兴的桁架、框架、网架结构、悬索结构逐渐推广，出现了结构形式百花争艳的局面。 建筑物跨径从砖结构、石结构、木结构的几米、几十米发展到钢结构的百米、几百米，直到现代的千米以上。于是在大江、海峡上架起大桥，在地面上建造起摩天大楼和高耸铁塔，甚至在地面下铺设铁路，创造出前所未有的奇迹。 为适应钢结构工程发展的需要，在牛顿力学的基础上，材料力学、结构力学、工程结构设计理论等就应运而生。施工机械、施工技术和施工组织设计的理论也随之发展，土木工程从经验上升成为科学，在工程实践和基础理论方面都面貌一新，从而促成了土木工程更迅速的发展。 十九世纪20年代，波特兰水泥制成后，混凝土问世了。混凝土骨料可以就地取材，混凝土构件易于成型，但混凝土的抗拉强度很小，用途受到限制。 十九世纪中叶以后，钢铁产量激增，随之出现了钢筋混凝土这种新型的复合建筑材料，其中钢筋承担拉力，混凝土承担压力，发挥了各自的优点。 二十世纪初以来，钢筋混凝土广泛应用于土木工程的各个领域。 从三十年代开始，出现了预应力混凝土。预应力混凝土结构的抗裂性能、刚度和承载能力，大大高于钢筋混凝土结构，因而用途更为广阔。土木工程进入了钢筋混凝土和预应力混凝土占统治地位的历史时期。混凝土的出现给建筑物带来了新的经济、美观的工程结构形式，使土木工程产生了新的施工技术和工程结构设计理论。这是土木工程的又一次飞跃发展。 建造一项工程设施一般要经过勘察、设计和施工三个阶段，需要运用工程地质勘察、水文地质勘察、工程测量、土力学、工程力学、工程设计、建筑材料、建筑设备、工程机械、建筑经济等学科和施工技术、施工组织等领域的知识 ，以及电子计算机和力学测试等技术。因而土木工程是一门范围广阔的综合性学科。随着科学技术的进步和工程实践的发展，土木工程这个学科也已发展成为内涵广泛、门类众多、结构复杂的综合体系。 土木工程是伴随着人类社会的发展而发展起来的。它所建造的工程设施反映出各个历史时期社会经济、文化、科学、技术发展的面貌，因而土木工程也就成为社会历史发展的见证之一。 远古时代，人们就开始修筑简陋的房舍、道路、桥梁和沟澶，以满足简单的生活和生产需要。后来，人们为了适应战争、生产和生活以及宗教传播的需要，兴建了城池、运河、宫殿、寺庙以及其他各种建筑物。 许多著名的工程设施显示出人类在这个历史时期的创造力。例如，中国的长城、都江堰、大运河、赵州桥、应县木塔，埃及的金字塔，希腊的巴台农神庙，罗马的给水工程、科洛西姆圆形竞技场(罗马大斗兽场)，以及其他许多著名的教堂、宫殿等。 产业革命以后，特别是到了20世纪，一方面社会向土木工程提出了新的需求；另一方面，社会各个领域为土木工程的前进创造了良好的条件。因而这个时期的土木工程得到突飞猛进的发展。在世界各地出现了现代化规模宏大的工业厂房、摩天大厦，核电站、高速公路和铁路、大跨桥梁、大直径运输管道长隧道、大运河、大堤坝、大飞机场、大海港以及海洋工程等等。现代土木工程不断地为人类社会创造崭新的物质环境，成为人类社会现代文明的重要组成部分。 土木工程是具有很强的实践性的学科。在早期，土木工程是通过工程实践，总结成功的经验，尤其是吸取失败的教训发展起来的。从17世纪开始，以伽利略和牛顿为先导的近代力学同土木工程实践结合起来，逐渐形成材料力学、结构力学、流体力学、岩体力学，作为土木工程的基础理论的学科。这样土木工程才逐渐从经验发展成为科学。 在土木工程的发展过程中，工程实践经验常先行于理论，工程事故常显示出未能预见的新因素，触发新理论的研究和发展。至今不少工程问题的处理，在很大程度上仍然依靠实践经验。 土木工程技术的发展之所以主要凭借工程实践而不是凭借科学试验和理论研究，有两个原因：一是有些客观情况过于复杂，难以如实地进行室内实验或现场测试和理论分析。例如，地基基础、隧道及地下工程的受力和变形的状态及其随时间的变化，至今还需要参考工程经验进行分析判断。二是只有进行新的工程实践，才能揭示新的问题。例如，建造了高层建筑、高耸塔桅和大跨桥梁等，工程的抗风和抗震问题突出了，才能发展出这方面的新理论和技术。在土木工程的长期实践中，人们不仅对房屋建筑艺术给予很大注意，取得了卓越的成就；而且对其他工程设施，也通过选用不同的建筑材料，例如采用石料、钢材和钢筋混凝土，配合自然环境建造了许多在艺术上十分优美、功能上又十分良好的工程。古代中国的万里长城，现代世界上的许多电视塔和斜张桥，都是这方面的例子。Plays a key role in the development of civil engineering, is the first civil construction materials as the basis for engineering material, followed by the subsequent development of the design theory and construction Whenever there is a fine new building materials, civil engineering will be a leap type People can only rely on the early Earth, wood and other natural materials in the construction activities, and later appeared in brick and tile that artificial materials, so that the first human to break the shackles of natural building Chinese in Eleventh Century BC in the early Western Zhou Dynasty created the The first brick in the fifth Century BC to the third Century BC, the tomb of the Warring States Brick and tile has superior mechanical properties,soil can obtain raw material locally, and easy to Emergence of brick and tile so that people began to widely, a large number of housing construction and urban flood control This civil engineering technology has been rapid Until 18 ~ nineteenth Century, as long as two thousand years, brick and tile has been a major civil engineering construction materials, made a great contribution to the human civilization, and was also widely used in the A large number of applications of steel products is the second leap in civil In seventeenth Century 70 time began using pig iron, the early nineteenth Century began to usewrought iron bridges and the construction of housing, which is a prelude to the emergence of From the beginning of the mid nineteenth Century, the metallurgical industry smelting and rolling out high tensile and compressive strength, good ductility, uniformity of the quality of construction steel, then produce high-strength steel wire, steel And meet the needs for development of steel structure has been In addition to the application of the original beam, arch structure, the new truss, frame, grid structure, and gradually promote the suspension structure,the form of the structure of a hundred flowers contend in beauty From the brick building long-span structure, stone structure, wood structure of a few meters, the development of tens of meters to 100 meters of steel structures, several hundred meters, 1000 meters until So the bridge in the river, channel, since the construction of skyscrapersand high-rise tower on the ground, even in the laying of underground railway, to create ahitherto To meet the development needs of the steel structure engineering, on the basis of Newton's mechanics, material mechanics, structural mechanics, structural engineering design theory would emerge as the times Theoretical design of machinery, construction technology and organization construction also development, civil engineering from the experience of rising to become science, both in engineering practice and theoretical basis for a new, which led tomore rapid development of civil In nineteenth Century 20, Portland cement concrete was Concrete aggregate can obtain raw material locally, easy to concrete structures forming, but the tensile strength of concrete is very small, limited By the middle of the nineteenth Century, the surge in steel production,followed by a composite building material of this new type of reinforced concrete, which bear the tension steel, concrete bear the pressure, to play their respective Since the beginning of twentieth Century, each field of reinforced concrete is widely used in From the beginning of the thirty's, the prestressed The crack resistance, stiffness and bearing capacity of prestressed concrete structure, much higher than the reinforced concrete structure, which uses Civil engineering into the reinforced concrete and prestressed concrete dominant historical Concrete brings the structural form of new economic,aesthetic to the building, civil engineering so that a theory of new construction technology and engineering structure This is a leap in the development of civil A project to build the facilities in general to go through investigation, design and construction in three stages, need to discipline the use of geological prospecting projects, hydro geological survey, engineering survey, soil mechanics, engineering mechanics, engineering design,building materials, construction equipment, engineering machinery, building the economy, and the construction technology, construction and other fields of knowledge, as well as the computer and mechanical testing Civil engineering is therefore a broad range of integrated With the development of science and technology development and engineering practice, the civil engineering disciplines have also been developed into a comprehensivesystem of broad connotation, category numerous, complicated Civil engineering is accompanied by the development of human society and the development It works in the construction of facilities reflect the face of social and economic development,technology, science, culture in every historical period, so the civil engineering has become one of the social and historical development of the In ancient times, people began to build simple houses, roads, bridges and water channel, to meet the simple life and production Later, people in order to adapt to the war, productionand dissemination of religious life and the need to build the city, canals,, palaces, temples and other Many well-known works shown in this historical period of human For example, Chinathe Great Wall, Dujiangyan, the Grande Canale, the Zhaozhou Bridge, the Yingxian Wood Tower, the Pyramid of Egypt, Greece's Parthenon, Rome's water supply project, Kolo Sim Arena(Rome Coliseum), and many other famous churches, After the industrial revolution, especially in twentieth Century, on one hand, the society puts forward new requirements to the civil engineering; on the other hand, each field of the society to create good conditions for the advancement of civil Thus this period of civil engineering has make a spurt of progress of In the rest of the world in the modern large-scale industrial plants, skyscrapers, nuclear power plants, highways and railways, long-span bridge, large diameter pipelines long tunnel, the Grande Canale, big dams, big airport, port and marine engineering Modern civil engineering to create a new physical environment for the human society, has become an important part of modern civilization of human Civil engineering is a very practical In the early days, through the civil engineering practice, summing up successful experience, especially draw lessons from the failure of From the beginning of seventeenth Century, with Galileo and Newton as a combination of pilot with the mechanics of the modern civil engineering practice, gradually formed the mechanical material mechanics, structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, rock mass, as the basis of the theory of civil engineering This experience in civil engineering from the gradually developed into a In the process of the development of civil engineering, engineering practice often first experience in theory, engineering accidents often show a new unforeseen factors, triggering a new theory of research and Yet many engineering problems, still rely on practical experience in the very great
刚好我也在做毕业设计 把我的给你用吧！ Traditional Construction ProceduresAs mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a Such contractors are called prime Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a Such organizations are called design-build One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the Administration of the construction procedure often is Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the Managers usually also supervise selection of During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their During construction, all work should be For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe Such inspections may be made at frequent In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building Following is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory After the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway The general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to Before construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local A survey is then made to lay out Field offices for the contractor are erected on or near the If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted Next, the site is prepared to receive the This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is Major construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of As the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are If required, fireproofing is placed for steel Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,Finishing operations There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the Utilities, such as gas, electricity, and water, are hooked up to the The sit is landscaped and Finally, the building interior is painted and The owner’s representatives then give the building a final If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code 传统的施工程序众所周知，在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求，但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此，他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后，施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用，设备，电力，劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如，管道承包商安装水管，电业承办商安装电气系统，电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同，费用由总承包商支付。有时候，除了一个总承包商，还有各种专业承包商，如电气和机械承包商，执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作，由总承包商协调，但它们都是由业主直接联系。还有些时候，业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房，但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此，一些业主会去寻求专家的协助，这些专家被称为专业施工经理，他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判，并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间，它们有助于控制成本，加快运送设备和材料，并保持工作的进度。在依法行政，协助设计和建设的情况下，业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。建筑承包商雇用的劳动力，一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活，如木工，管道工，工会成员和电工工会，小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。在施工期间，一切工作都要验收。因此，业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员，建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求，并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。此外，验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求，并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。建造开始后合同授予开发商，业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证，例如当地的建设，供水，污水处理，政府机构和公路部门。总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后，做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书，然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。在施工前启动，总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形，这些都要记录在案，并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后，随即进行布局建设。承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见，必须从脚手架上移除的东西，产生的碎片都要运走。下一步，该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度，以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘，土方支撑，底部排出。建筑开始于基础上，然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子，楼梯，或电梯的安装，可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外，可安装卷扬机来运送材料。由于建筑高度的上升，管道，电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板，外墙，窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候，永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次，屋顶等地方也需要安装。精加工工序安装有包括以下内容：天花板，瓷砖，墙板，墙壁镶板，水管装置，加热炉，空气调节设备，加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板，窗户玻璃;活动板，门;电气设备和仪器，包括照明灯具，开关，变压器，控制器，遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处，围栏，桥梁和其他临时建筑，公共设备，如天然气，电力管道，水管，都连接到建筑上。最后，是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。业主的代表，会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件，那么业主接受该项目，并交给总承包商的一个占用证书，这表明，总承包商已完成建设，建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。请采纳。
几年级的啊？
土木工程civil engineering 开题报告Thesis proposal 文献综述Review of the literature
building types and designA building is closely bound up with people，for it provides with the necessary space to work and live in As classified by their use ,buildings are mainly of two types :industrial buildings and civil buildings industrial buildings are used by various factories or industrial production while civil buildings are those that are used by people for dwelling ,employment ,education and other social activities Industrial buildings are factory buildings that are available for processing and manufacturing of various kinds ,in such fields as the mining industry ,the metallurgical industry ,machine building ,the chemical industry and the textile industry factory buildings can be classified into two types single-story ones and multi-story ones he construction of industrial buildings is the same as that of civil buildings however ,industrial and civil buildings differ in the materials used and in the way they are used Civil buildings are divided into two broad categories: residential buildings and public buildings sidential buildings should suit family life ach flat should consist of at least three necessary rooms : a living room ,a kitchen and a toilet public buildings can be used in politics ,cultural activities ,administration work and other services ,such as schools, office buildings, parks ,hospitals ,shops ,stations ,theatres ,gymnasiums ,hotels ,exhibition halls ,bath pools ,and so on all of them have different functions ,which in turn require different design types as Housing is the living quarters for human beings he basic function of housing is to provide shelter from the elements ,but people today require much more that of their housing a family moving into a new neighborhood will to know if the available housing meets its standards of safety ,health ,and comfort a family will also ask how near the housing is to grain shops ,food markets ,schools ,stores ,the library ,a movie theater ,and the community center In the mid-1960’s a most important value in housing was sufficient space both inside and out a majority of families preferred single-family homes on about half an acre of land ,which would provide space for spare-time activities in highly industrialized countries ,many families preferred to live as far out as possible from the center of a metropolitan area ,even if the wage earners had to travel some distance to their work quite a large number of families preferred country housing to suburban housing because their chief aim was to get far away from noise ,crowding ,and confusion he accessibility of public transportation had ceased to be a decisive factor in housing because most workers drove their cars to work people we’re chiefly interested in the arrangement and size of rooms and the number of bedrooms Before any of the building can begin ,plans have to be drawn to show what the building will be like ,the exact place in which it is to go and how everything is to be An important point in building design is the layout of rooms ,which should provide the greatest possible convenience in relation to the purposes for which they are intended in a dwelling house ,the layout may be considered under three categories : “day”, “night” ,and “services” attention must be paid to the provision of easy communication between these areas he “day “rooms generally include a dining-room ,sitting-room and kitchen ,but other rooms ,such as a study ,may be added ,and there may be a hall he living-room ,which is generally the largest ,often serves as a dining-room ,too ,or the kitchen may have a dining alcove he “night “rooms consist of the bedrooms he “services “comprise the kitchen ,bathrooms ,larder ,and water-closets he kitchen and larder connect the services with the day rooms It is also essential to consider the question of outlook from the various rooms ,and those most in use should preferably face south as possible it is ,however ,often very difficult to meet the optimum requirements ,both on account of the surroundings and the location of the roads in resolving these complex problems ,it is also necessary to follow the local town-planning regulations which are concerned with public amenities ,density of population ,height of buildings ,proportion of green space to dwellings ,building lines ,the general appearance of new properties in relation to the neighbourhood ,and so on There is little standardization in industrial buildings although such buildings still need to comply with local town-planning regulations he modern trend is towards light ,airy factory buildings ally of reinforced concrete or metal construction ,a factory can be given a “shed ”type ridge roof ,incorporating windows facing north so as to give evenly distributed natural lighting without sun-glare 翻译：建筑类型和设计建筑物与人们有着紧密的联系，他为人们提供必要的空间，用以工作和生活。根据适用类型不同，建筑物可以分为两类：工业建筑和民用建筑。工业建筑包括各个工厂或工业生产所使用建筑，民用建筑是指那些人们用以居住，就业，教育和其他社会活动的建筑场所。工业建筑的厂房可用于采矿业，冶金工业，机械制造，化学工业和纺织工业等各类领域的加工和制造。厂房可分为两种类型：单层的和多层的。工业建筑也属于建筑的一种。但是，工业建筑与民用建筑所用的材料和建筑方式不同。民用建筑按使用可分为两大类：住宅建筑和公共建筑。住宅建筑要适应家庭生活。每个单位应包括至少三个必要客房：起居室，厨房和厕所。公共建筑可在政治，文化活动，管理工作和其他服务，如学校，写字楼，公园，医院，商店，车站，剧院，体育馆，宾馆，展览馆，洗浴池，等等。他们都有着不同的职能，这反过来又需要不同的设计类型。房屋是用以住人的 其基本功能是提供住房的内容，但今天人们需要更多的住房内容。一个家庭在进入一个新的社区后将知道，现有住房不仅要符合其安全，健康和舒适等标准。还要考虑其附近是否有相应的配套设施，如食品市场，学校，商店，图书馆，电影院，以及社区中心等。在60年代中期住房最重要的价值是足够大的空间和方便的出入交通。大多数家庭会首选约半英亩面积土地的家庭住宅，这样将提供足够的空间的用以业余活动。在高度工业化的国家，许多家庭的首选是那种尽可能远离市中心商业圈的住房，即使距离上班地点不得不有一段距离。相当多的家庭首选是郊区的住房，因为他们的主要目的是要远离噪音，拥挤和混乱。拥有方便的公共交通使得距离不再是一个决定性因素，因为大多数人都是开着自己的汽车去上班了。人们现在主要感兴趣的是户型，房间的大小和卧室的数目。在工程项目开始之前，要做好建筑设计和施工流程,让人提前知道该建筑建成后是什么样子以及下一步应该做什么。在建筑设计中要特别重视房间的布局，其目的是提供最大的便利与可能的用途。在一个住宅建筑设计中，布局可考虑以下三个方面： “白天” ， “夜晚”和“服务”。必须注意这些空间区域之间的连通交流。 “白天”房一般包括餐厅，起居室和厨房，但其他房间可能会增加，如书房，并有可能成为一个大厅。起居室通常是最大的，往往是一个餐厅，也或可能有厨房、凹室等。 “夜间”房间包括卧室、客房。“服务”用房间包括厨房，浴室，储藏室 ，和厕所等。厨房和储藏室需设置在一起，以方便其房间功能的使用。此外，还必须考虑各种客房的朝向问题，当然最好尽可能的将那些经常使用的房间朝南设置。然而，在考虑到周围的环境和地点、道路等多方面因素，往往很难达到最佳要求。在解决这些复杂的问题，还必须按照当地城市规划条例所涉及的对公共设施，人口密度，建筑物高度，绿化面积，建筑红线等的要求，还要考虑到有相邻建筑的情况，等等。尽管工业建筑需要符合当地城市规划条例但很少有标准化的工业楼宇。现代厂房建筑的趋势是轻质、通风。一般的钢筋混凝土结构或钢结构的工厂，可以得到一个“跌”型脊屋顶，把窗户开向北以便使分布均匀的自然采光不会直射进来造成刺眼。