Parametric Study of Low Frequency Broadband Rectilinear－to－Rotary Vibrational Energy Harvesting

0 Introduction

Despite the abundance of ambient vibrations，conventional linear rectilinear energy harvesters have notoriously limited efficiency［1］，as they typically only work efficiently in a narrow band of frequencies centered around their own natural frequency，which reduces their power density.To widen the output bandwidth，active tuning mechanisms have been developed that adjust the natural frequency of the harvesters in response to the excitation frequency［2，3］.Study on circuit design for energy harvesters using switching techniques to increase harvesting efficiency have also been done［4，5］.For instance，the self－powered synchronized switching interface can extend the effective bandwidth by four times.

Another popular approach is to enable nonlinearity of the energy harvesters to obtain highenergy orbits by introducing external magnetic forces.The so－called nonlinear energy harvesters（NEHs），could be designed as softening or hardening configurations to widen output bandwidth under excitations with slowly varying frequencies［6］.Multiple cantilever beams with different but close natural frequencies have been also integrated to achieve broad bandwidth［7－9］but there is no interaction between these cantilever beams.To explore the interaction effect on the broadband output，two degree－of－freedom（2DOF）harvest－ers have been constructed［10－13］to have double resonant peaks and increased frequency bandwidth.

1.4 统计学分析 应用SPSS 16.0统计软件包对数据资料进行分析，采用χ2检验，P<0.05为差异有统计学意义。

These aforementioned approaches can also be combined，such as using magnetic forces to couple two cantilever beams，and to form a nonlinear 2DOF energy harvester［14，15］.Experimental investigation has shown a nearly 100%increase in the operating bandwidth and a 41%increase in the magnitude of the power output at an excitation level of 2m/s2［15］.Such nonlinear energy harvesters could make the resonant peaks commensurable with suitable parameters，which results in more resonant peaks and wider bandwidth.Experiments have demonstrated a 130%increase in the bandwidth in comparison to their linear counterparts at an excitation level of 2m/s2［16］.

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Simulated the torque for different configurations of repulsive magnets by using equation Mr，as shown in Fig.6，the simulation results agree well with the experimental results no matter the number of repulsive magnets or varied distance d were applied demonstrating the validity of our fitted equations.

A rectilinear－to－rotary motion conversion mechanism can address these shortcomings from both the rectilinear and the rotary nonlinear energy harvesters，and thus to provide an efficient approach to harvest low－frequency rectilinear vibrations.However，rectilinear－to－rotary motion conversion is traditionally achieved by using a combination of mechanical transmission components，such as crank and connecting rod or eccentric and pitman arm［18，19］.Not withstanding their benefits，the complex mechanical transmission components required for coupling，and the introduced excessive volume，mass，wear，Friction，and energy loss，present significant challenges to reliability and durability.In most of these aforementioned approaches，friction and inelastic deformation lead to significant energy loss.

T he restoring torque Mrm easured at any point on the RTO is a combination of torques generated by the interaction of repulsive magnets（Trep）and arc magnets as well as attractive ferromagnetic screw （Tscr）and arc magnets.These torques are superimposed on each other.First，the repulsive torque function （Trep）at different distance d when only one repulsive magnet was attached is needed to obtain.The torques at d＝3.5，3.9，4.9，5.3，6.0and 7.5mm were measured and plotted in Fig.3.Curve fitting was used to characterize the nonlinear restoring torque.The common function of the torque can be expressed as

1 Structural Design

The dual resonator （Fig.1）builds off our previous work［20］，consisting of a rectilinear oscillator（RLO）performing magnetic levitation and a rotary oscillator（RTO）performing electromagnetic coupling through a stator and a rotor.Both oscillators，coupled by magnetic forces generated by a set of arc permanent magnets（N52，15mm o.r.×5mm i.r.×10mm，90°），radially magnetized and centro－symmetrically fixed onto the RLO and the rotor of the RTO achieve the reciprocating－to－rotary motion conversion and frequency up－conversion.Without the repulsive magnets，the magnetic interaction between the eight ferromagnetic screws and the rotor generates eight angular equilibrium positions（0，π/4，2π/4，3π/4，π，5π/4，6π/4and 7π/4）.Two repulsive rectangular magnets（8mm×8mm×8mm）are attached in the stator in RTO （Fig.1（a））to reduce the number of equilibrium positions from eight to four，and to shallow the potential well.The stator also has six coils（2 000turns，50Ω）.For each coil，a ferromagnetic screw is inserted inside to increase the magnetic flux cross the coil and it generates magnetic interaction with the magnets on the rotor，which along with the two repulsive magnets creates the desired potential well distribution.

with different coefficients Aand B，which are dependent on the distance d.

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where z，mand c1are the displacement，mass and damping coefficient of the RLO，respectively；Fexcthe input excitation force；Ffthe friction force on RLO from the steel shafts；θ，I and c2 the angular displacement，angular mass and damping coefficient of the RTO，respectively；ku the constant coefficient about electromechanical coupling；RLthe load resistance；Rintthe internal resistance of the harvester；Voutthe output voltage caused by the varied electromagnetic field；F（θ，z）andτ（θ，z）the magnetic force and torque between the RLO magnet and the rotor magnets，and Mrthe restoring torque generated by repulsive magnets and ferromagnetic screws on RTO.

The same procedure was conducted to measure the torque produced by one attractive ferromagnetic screw，experimental result and curve fitted is shown in Fig.5.

Fig.1 Structural design and mechanical schematic

2 Restoring Torque of RTO：Parametric Study and Analysis

2.1 Experimental measurement

The restoring torque Mrwas decided by the positions and quantities of repulsive magnets.To accurately describe the nonlinear characteristics of the energy harvester，the accurate nonlinear restoring torque Mron rotor is needed.Since the size of arc magnets and repulsive magnets cannot be ignored compared with the distance between them，the Gilbert model［22］ or the Ampère model［23］ which assumes the permanent magnet as either a magnetic charge or magnetic dipole is not suitable for the system.Therefore，curve fitting method was used to derive the expression of Mracted on the rotor from measurement data.As shown in Fig.2，the stator of the rotary oscillator was fixed to a platform.By adjusting the side knob，the platform could rotate a certain angle.One end of a bar was fixed to the center of rotor，another end to the tip of the force sensor.The force corresponding to the angle can be read by the force sensor.By multiplying the force and the distance，the torque Mrcould be calculated.d is the normal distances from the surface of repul－sive magnets to the outer surface of the RTO magnets.Ωis the angle between two repulsive magnets.

Fig.2 Experimental setup of restoring torque measurement

2.2 Modeling and systematic analysis

This paper reports a contactless dual resonator for achieving high－power－density low frequency broadband energy harvesting，consisting of a rectilinear oscillator and a rotary oscillator coupled through magnetic forces.We derived the electromagnetic－dynamic governing equations of the nonlinear 2DOF system.The combination of restoring torques produced by the interaction of repulsive magnets and ferromagnetic screws with arc magnets can enable the dual resonances to be tuned for different vibration sources.Thus，a curve fitting model of the restoring torque under different configurations is developed for future simulation of the system.Furthermore，the experimental results for harvested power are presented to confirm the power harvesting capacity.

The equivalent mechanical model of the harvester is presented schematically in Fig.1（b）.The governing equations of the nonlinear 2DOF sys－tem subjected to base excitation Fexccan be described by

The comprehensive restoring torque Mris the combination of torques generated by repulsive magnets and ferromagnetic screws，which gives

Eq.（1）shows that the angular displacement and angular acceleration has significant effect on the output voltage.The functions of F（θ，z）and τ（θ，z）have been developed in our previous work［21］.In order to predict the response of the system，it becomes necessary to figure out how the restoring torque Mrproduced by the interaction of arc magnets with repulsive magnets and attractive ferromagnetic screws result in a change in the rotational motion.So，the following section will derive the analytical model of the restoring torque on RTO.

Thus，the equation of torque（Tscr）can be expressed as the following equations in one period（π/2）

Fig.3 Restoring torques when only one magnet was applied at different distances（Trep）

Fig.4 Linear fitting of coefficients Aand B

Fig.5 Curve fitted of torque given by ferromagnetic screw （Tscr）

By linear fitting A and B，as shown in Fig.4，we have

However，the efficiency of NEHs is still much lower than rotary generators［17］.Rotary generators，generally outperform rectilinear devices，owning to concentrated magnetic flux variation in the coil.While they are particularly well suited for low－frequency，large－amplitude oscillations，the application of rotary generators is restricted to purely rotational energy sources，e.g.，wind turbines and hydroelectric stations.

Fig.6 Experimental and simulation results of the restoring torque（Mr）

In this section，we created a systematic model of the restoring torque （Mr），whose waveform has approximated sinusoidal dependence on the rotor angular displacement.By adding the repulsive magnets，the number of equilibrium positions can be reduced from 8to 4，that is，the period of restoring torque changes with the presence of repulsive magnet（s）：π/4without magnet and π/2with magnet，respectively.Through experimental verification，the curve fitting model can accurately describe the restoring torque of RTO under different repulsive magnets configurations，which will benefit for predicting the response of the dual resonator system.

3 Power Output Analysis

To illustrate the behavior of the energy harvester，excite this system at different frequency to move the RLO upward or downward the RTO，thereby producing a repulsive torque to push the rotor oscillate at a certain degree and then the rotor will swing back due to the potential energy well.As shown in Fig.7，a long stroke electrodynamic shaker（APS dynamics Inc.）is controlled by a signal generator（KEYSIGHT 33500B）in conjunction with a power amplifier（APS 125）to provide a sine excitation with various frequencies acted on the prototype harvester.A piezo accelerometer（PCB333B32）measures the input excitation level and a laser sensor （optoNCDT1402，Micro－Epsilon Inc.）measures the rectilinear displacement of the RLO.

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Fig.7 Schematic diagram of the experimental setup

Fig.8shows the time history plot of the open－circuit voltage and corresponding RLO displacement at different with one repulsive magnets（d＝3.5mm），Fig.8（a），and two repulsive magnets（d1＝3.5vmm，d2＝7.5mm，Ω＝135°），Fig.8（b），attached.One magnet has a higher and denser voltage output than two magnets due to the larger restoring torque which result in a deeper potential energy well.However，the shallow potential energy well（two magnets）results in a wider bandwidth.For one magnet configuration，it was also found that with input excitations being at low frequencies，the driving magnet might get stuck and does not pluck the rotor effectively.With a higher input frequency （5—7Hz），the RLO is able to drive the rotor to escape potential energy wells with a high angular velocity.The ro－tor oscillates over equilibrium positions for several vibration cycles periodically and generatesoutput voltage at larger amplitude.However，when the input frequency is larger than 7 Hz，due to the small amplitude rectilinearmotion，the RLO does not have strong magnetic interaction with the rotor.Therefore，the output voltage is small.The frequency-up conversion is observed when the RL O drives the rotor to escape potential wells，and the subsequent driving torque starts to deflect the rotor before the resonant vibration induced by the previous torque had fully run down.

Fig.8 Experimental output voltage and RL O displacement under different input frequencies and 0.5g acceleration

Fig.9 shows the frequency responses of the open circuit voltage against excitation frequencies ranged from 2 Hz to 10 Hz under 0.5g base accelerations.One repulsivemagnet configuration has a denser output voltage and most voltages are achieved at 4—7.5 Hz range.Two repulsive magnets configuration has a wider operation bandwidth from 4 Hz to 8 Hz.

Fig.9 Frequency sweep of output voltage at 0.5g acceleration

A tunable resistor was connected between the electrodes of the harvester to experimentally determine the optimal load-resistance formaximum power output when one repulsivemagnets(d=3.5 mm)was attached.The value R L of the resistor and voltage V R across the load were measured.The instantaneous power delivered by the energy harvester can be obtained according to P=/RL.Fig.10 shows the experimental results of output RMS power and RMS voltage，normalized by the base acceleration，versus load resistance.The maximum output RMS power is 183 m W/g2 at the resistive load of 500Ω，which is three times larger than our previouswork.

Fig.10 Experimental measurement of RMS power output and RMS voltage output under harmonic excitation of 5 Hz at 0.5g

4 Conclusions

This paper reports a contactless high－powerdensity energy harvester energy was harvested using coils and magnets by converting stochastic reciprocating motion into controllable rotation，to provide intrinsic frequency up－conversion，and to be configured into specific applications to obtain and maintain high－energy obits of multi－stable energy harvesting with near－unity energy conversion efficiency and bandwidth widening.A parametric study is also presented to underlie the dynamic mechanisms of the prototype，a curve fitting model of restoring torque was developed，and a reliable approach is proposed to estimate the magnetic interaction for given configurations，which can be used for predicting response of the electromechanical system.The experiment power analysis demonstrated the up－conversion of a 5 Hz input excitation into an output voltage with a frequency of about 30 Hz，which is six times the input frequency.The maximum output RMS power is 183 m W/g2 at the resistive load of 500 Ω，which is three times larger than our previous work.

Acknowledgements

This work was partially supported by the U.S.Office of Navy Research（No.N000141410230），and partially supported by the Department of Energy ARPA－E （No.DOEAR0000531）.

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