Communitarianism and Media Ethics

The long-term validity of media ethics depends on its theoretical sophistication.There are numerous challenges in teaching, research, and professional morality, but media ethics needs intellectual substance to be equipped for the globalized 21st century.Ethics is built on ideas, so a primary task is credible theory.Philosophical foundations are the basis of ethical reasoning.The common language of theory enables us to think more systematically about the major league issues, rather than be trapped in everyday routines.In the early years of media ethics, the material was largely atheoretical.But the field’s growth and the current demands of the media professions require a normative base.We find our pathway now and in the future conceptually.While insisting on the importance of theory for media ethics, we need to reconstruct the character of theorizing.Theories cannot be static, abstract and scholastic.The Greek tradition of rationality and the Enlightenment commitment to Cartesian mathematics have privileged an objective, ahistorical foundation of knowledge for the West.Within Western moral philosophy, the prevailing view is that moral imperatives are derived from disembodied reason.

随着我国改革开放进程的不断推进，特别是加入到了世贸组织之后，我国的经济市场和世界市场的接触越来越频繁、深入。而且随着全球经济一体化进程的快速推进，现在我们国家的企业受到世界其他国家的资本冲击也越来越大。这对于我们国家的企业来说，既是一种机遇也是一种新的挑战，但是因为受到互联网信息技术快速发展的影响，传统的营销模式已经完全无法跟上时代的发展了，我国企业要想获得更进一步的发展，必须进行相应的创新改革。

Theory should be redefined as meaningful portraits and not statistically precise formulations.Theorizing is not an examination of external events, but the imagination’s power to give us an inside perspective on reality.Theories arise from and explicate our fundamental beliefs about the world.Thomas Kuhn (1996) calls this revolutionary science, rather than the normal science of verifying that propositions are externally and internally valid[1].

The aspect of theory that is the focus of this essay is presuppositions.Theories of media ethics are multilevel： presuppositions or starting points, ethical principles such as human dignity, and applications to professional practice.Theories of media ethics that are credible take seriously these three levels and ensure that theories are coherent across these three levels.Accounting for our presuppositions is indispensable.All knowledge systems have an origin.Aristotle is correct that there cannot be infinite regression.There must be an unmoved mover, a beginning, a first belief for thinking and discourse to be meaningful.Therefore, the emphasis in this paper is on communitas.This idea is the basis of the principle of human dignity, and based on these two levels are the two applications of civic transformation and interpretive sufficiency.Community as a normative ideal, that is, communities that honor the common good, are a worldwide phenomenon.Communitas as the underlying worldview, the essential starting point, is international and enables us to work on media ethics cross-culturally.

Communitarianism is a social philosophy rooted in community and communicate, commune and common[2].Communitarianism is the best umbrella term for a family of concepts based on the Latin noun communitas.Its international usage recommends it as a generic term linking together specific ethical theories of media ethics from different parts of the world.

Communitarianism is a theory of persons and goodness that relocates ethics from the mind as the focus of identity and being, to the relationships humans have with others as the centerpiece.Communitarianism reorients our thinking about the good life from the self to relations between selves.In relationships, we define our being and shape our ethical problem-solving.The space we share with others becomes the focus of moral attention, and the way that space is changed for better or worse is how we chart moral progress.Communitarianism is a way of thinking about law and media ethics that turns our attention away from the rights and obligations of the self, and centers instead on the social matrix in which we gather all we know about the good.

In communitarianism, we understand that we are social beings who are constituted through others.In media ethics rooted in communitas, moral experience is formed in terms of its origins, present concerns and outcomes[3].Rational calculation and impartial reflection are secondary to an understanding of the good that is nurtured in community.The moral life develops through community formation and not in the mental sanctums of isolated individuals.Moral values are situated in the social context rather than anchored by theoretical abstractions.Rather than individual rights as the integrating norm, our obligations to one another define our existence.

Community is the home of dialogic interpretation, community understood as what Daniel Bell calls “a normative ideal”[4].People’s lives are bound up with the good of the community in which their identity is established.In their Habits of the Heart, Bellah and colleagues (1996) define communities as those “attachments one values”, considering this definition applicable to communities worldwide where these valued forms of human life illustrate multiple diversity[5].The various concepts, histories, and problematics of communitas are only dialects of the same language—pluralities that feed from and into one another, held together by a similar body of ideas.Communitas as a philosophical concept yields an ethics of intercultural communication that is centered on human dignity and stretches across the continents.In this formulation, research on the transnational and intercultural is accountable to the widely shared common good that orients the people-groups in which they operate and by which they are given meaning.Communitarianism recommends itself as a political philosophy for global ethics because it captures community life as an ideal worldwide.Rather than the individualism that dominates the industrial nations of the West, communalism is an idea that cuts across the standard polarities： North-South, East-West, developed-developing.What follows are two examples of communitarian thinking in two major regions of the world.

North America’s Communitarian Democracy

Modern-day communitarianism in North America began as a critical reaction to John Rawls’ history-making book A Theory of Justice.Political philosophers such as Michael Sandel of the United States and Charles Taylor of Canada dispute Rawls’ procedural liberalism.They opt for a social, deliberative democracy instead.While they do not use the term themselves, communitarian democracy has become the label for their attacks on atomistic liberalism[6].

在深化改革的探索中，云南在全国实现了“四个创新”、创造了“四个全国第一”，即：创新森林资源资产评估模式、创新林权社会化服务体系建设、创新林业产业发展方式、创新林业投融资方式，成为全国第一个实现林权管理信息化的省份，在全国第一家开展林权社会化服务体系建设，林权抵押贷款规模连续7年位居全国前列，在全国率先开展经济林木和观赏苗木抵押贷款。

根据电镜观察，贴在弯管段不同试验贴片的表面蚀坑具有不同形态特征。用扫描电镜自带的能谱分析软件对试验贴片的化学元素做了定性分析，受20～40目粒径的砂粒冲蚀后，20号碳钢贴片表面氧元素含量较高，有明显的腐蚀增强作用。对其他粒径冲蚀的贴片进行能谱分析亦发现：20～40目砂粒冲蚀后的X80管线钢表面的氧元素与冲蚀试验之前相比有所减少，说明含砂水流在冲蚀过程中冲掉了部分腐蚀产物，此时冲蚀大于腐蚀。

They contend against Rawls that a democratic politics of individual rights should be replaced by a politic of the common good.These scholars (plus Michael Walzer and Alasdair MacIntyre) understand the issues in fundamental terms as revolving around the relationship between persons and community, and the legitimacy of ethical principles in the contemporary age.Rawls’ liberalism falsely assumes that our individual identity can be established in isolation from history and culture.Liberal political theory confuses an aggregate of individual goods with the common good.It mistakenly argues that people are distinct from their ends, thus the domain of the good is extrinsic.Individual liberty has priority over the moral order, and therefore ethics is exterior.Ourselves are presumed to be constituted antecedently, that is, in advance of our engagement with others.Community is understood as a possible aim of individuated selves but is not a constituent of their identity.In the communitarian worldview, what is worth preserving can only be determined within specific social situations where human identity and interests are framed.The communal—humanity’s commonness or communitas—is the context in which a person’s nature is understood.

可叶晓晓还是犹豫着，她隐隐约约感觉到这是人生转折的一件大事。如果她真的在所有媒体面前脱了，那么也就意味着她的衣服再也穿不回来了。到底该怎么做？好像没有一个万全之策，要么成名，一脱成名，要么放弃这个大好机会？放弃恐怕是不可能的，她如饥似渴地等待了这么久，煎熬了这么久，等待的就是一把火把她烧透，烧到通红，甚至是红得发紫。那才是她希望的。可是，这事情如何才能两全齐美呢？

In The Inclusion of the Other and The Postnational Constellation, Habermas, like Rawls, insists that rights are empty apart from their unique constitutional venues.While noting the positive role played by nationalism in struggles for liberation and democracy, Habermas recognizes that nationality today has all too often justified forms of nationalism that suppress dissident minority groups and other sub-nationalities.Habermas views international justice as an extension of domestic justice, whereby relationships of mutual dependency presume something like a basic structure requiring rectification by principles of distributive justice.In the age of globalization, both Rawls and Habermas are critiqued for inadvertently privileging the dominant norms of the industrial states over the norms of the other nations of the world.

Though justice as right order has dominated the media ethics agenda and is the standard formulation in the media professions, a different definition is necessary for working out a credible global justice as the standard for the international news media today.Theories of justice of the right order kind have generally centered on advanced, industrial societies.Working on justice in terms that include young and developing democracies moves us away from the right-order formulation.

The ethical principle of dignity is of primary importance to the communitarian version of media ethics.Different cultural traditions across the globe affirm human dignity in a variety of ways, but together they insist that all human beings have sacred status without exception.In Confucianism, we are to live in harmony with others because the human species is unique, requiring from within itself regard for its members as a whole.In African communalistic societies,likute is loyalty to the community’s reputation, to tribal honor[22].In Latin-American societies, insistence on cultural identity is an affirmation of the unique worth of human beings.Native American Indian discourse is steeped in the reverence for life and interconnectedness among all living forms, so that we live in solidarity with others as equal partners in the web of life.In Islam, every person has the right to honor and a good reputation.In Judeo-Christian ethics, all human beings without exception deserve respect because all are made in the image of God.For the Universal Declaration of Human Rights issued by the United Nations General Assembly in 1948, the common sacredness of all human beings regardless of merit, gender, class, and identity is not only considered a fact but a shared commitment.

式(2)中,Ai为不同浓度样品与ABTS工作液的混合液的吸光度；Aj为不同浓度样品与双蒸水的混合液的吸光度；A0为ABTS工作液与无水乙醇的混合液的吸光度。

Confucius turned on his head the traditional idea that superior persons are born into aristocratic families.He sees human excellence as depending on character rather than on soial position.The idea that human excellence is a function of morality, rather than birth, upbringing, dynasty, or even achievement, was revolutionary then and remains so today.

However, as Sandel says, we typically see ourselves “as members of this family or community or nation or people, as bearers of this history, as sons or daughters of that revolution, as citizens of this republic”[10].Such social attachments are involuntary, and rational choice has played no role.Some dimensions of justice are not based in agreements, but on “enduring attachments and commitments which taken together partly define the person I am.To imagine a person incapable of constitutive attachments” is to describe someone “of no moral depth”[11].Moral obligations are not invented by individuals, but are located within the social worlds that one enters and lives.The liberal concept of people who invent their own conceptions of good does not square with one’s actual moral experience.

In communitarian as a political philosophy, isolating selves from their conceptions of the good leads to an impoverished understanding of political community.Communal goods are then only one option among many worthwhile goods.The liberal concept of persons who invent their own conceptions of the good does not square with our actual moral experience.Many dimensions of justice are not based in agreements, but on involuntary and enduring attachments that taken together define us as persons.We are born into a sociocultural universe where values and meaning are either presumed or negotiated.Social systems precede their human occupants and endure after them.Therefore, morally appropriate action intends community.

Contrary to Locke’s dichotomy between individuals and society, fulfillment is never achieved in isolation but only through human bonding in which we prosper when others do.In the communitarian worldview, what is worth preserving can only be determined within specific social situations where values are made meaningful to us.The communal—our commonness, communitas—is the context in which the moral dimension of human existence is understood and put into action.

The immediate genealogy of communitarianism is this scholarly objection to John Rawls’ individualism beginning in the 1970s.The communitarianism of Taylor, Sandel, and Walzer connected their work with the Counter-Enlightenment tradition where humans as social beings contradicted the concept of individual rationality.Morally appropriate action intends community.Unless one’s freedom is used to help others prosper, their own wellbeing is negated.Fulfillment is never achieved in isolation, but only through human bonding.As Carole Pateman (1985) contends regarding moral agency： people know themselves primarily in relation to others; we assume obligations to others as a moral duty owed mutually to participants in social practices[12].Only by overcoming the traditional dualisms in liberal theory—between subject-object and individual-society—can one conceive of human existence as rooted in the mutuality of personal relationships.And the term “communitarianism” reached even deeper, into the Latin word-family communitas that across cultures relocates our human center from the self to community, of which Confucius’ ren is a prominent example.Humans are the only living species constituted by language[13].The symbolic realm is intrinsic to humanity and opens up for it a dimension of reality not accessible to other species.Humans are dialogic agents with a language community.Communicative bonds are moral bonds; they are ordering statements in that they convey value judgments.Therefore, morality must be seen in communal terms.

Confucius’ Humanity

第二，学科研究视野狭窄。编辑出版学学科从确立至今，一直在争取自己的合法身份、正当地位，但又屡屡不尽如人意。一面受到业界的质疑，一面又受到其他相关学科的挤压，学科自身的发展自信遭遇严重挫败。我们的学术生产主体在努力捍卫学科的专业性和独立性，遗憾的是我们在岌岌可危的学科忧患中，却一直未能打开研究视野，学术生产只在学科内部自娱自乐。对于社会科学来讲，在孤立学科封闭空间所展开的研究，自然难以产生创新的价值。

Equilibrium and harmony are central in Confucianism.They are the axes of one of his four major books—The Doctrine of the Mean [14]：

Equilibrium (chung) is the great root from which grows all human actings in the world.And harmony (yung) is the universal path all should pursue.Let the states of equilibrium and harmony exist in perfection, and happy order will prevail throughout the heaven and earth, and all things will be nourished and flourish.

The superior man cultivates friendly harmony without being weakHe stands erect in the middle, without inclining to either side.How firm is his energy.

与轻质薄板相比，ALC板、AS装配式墙板的保温、隔热、防火性能较好。对比ALC板与AS装配式墙板，ALC板更多地是替代了传统建筑维护墙体，其缺点是强度低和本身不具备装饰性。AS装配式墙板的各项性能均非常优越，外墙板为混凝土清水色饰面，质感厚重大气，可作为墙体和外饰面使用，不需要做额外的外装饰。由于AS墙板安装方便，施工周期短和防水防火性能优越，也可用于露天防火墙和围墙。AS墙板全干作业且施工安装效率高，耐久性强，维护成本低，更符合装配式变电站的发展趋势。

Confucius uses ren (humanity) as the term for virtue in general.Humaneness (ren) is the key virtue in The Analects, the most authentic account of his teachings.It has had a variety of translations, such as perfect virtue, goodness and human-heartedness.But it means at its heart “man-plus-two”, and the word summarizes how persons should ideally behave toward other human beings.It does not mean individual attainment—such as magnanimity or compassion—but refers to the manifestations of being humane.It derives from a person’s essential humanity.Before Confucius, the word ren did not have ethical importance, and its centrality is certainly one of the great innovations of The Analects.

The Master said： “It is humaneness which is the attraction of a neighborhood.If from choice one does not dwell in humaneness, how does one obtain wisdom?”

The Master said： “As far as anyone who loved humaneness is concerned, there would be no way of surpassing him.”

Byun and Lee (2002) argue that Confucian values can challenge the ethnocentric nature of a narrowly defined Western notion of human rights set largely in legal terms[15].For Byun and Lee, Confucianism provides a much more expansive and compassionate daily ethics than individual rights, based as equilibrium, harmony, and ren are on a holistic understanding of human nature.Whereas the Occident values a rights-based morality, the Confucian tradition is framed by mutual regard and respect toward the social order, that is, toward community-oriented responsibilities.

根据联合国清洁发展机（CDM）行理事会网站统计，截至2011年10月30日，我国共有1 753个CDM项目成功注册，占东道国注册项目总数的46.81%；预计产生的CO2年减排量共计356 171 235 t，占东道国注册项目预计年减排总量的63.80%。注册项目数量和年减排量均为世界第一。然而，《京都议定书》第一承诺期将于2012年年底到期，2012年后CDM市场形势并不明朗。

Opposition to Western liberal democracy has emerged from the East Asian region (Bell, 2008)[16].Asians place special emphasis on social harmony, with the implication that those in what they view as the West’s chaotic and crumbling societies should reconsider promoting human rights and democracy around the world.However, in the same way that communitarian philosophy works against the excesses of individualism in Western countries, a variety of Asian scholars such as Daniel Bell and William de Bary appeal to communitarianism to help remedy the limitations of Confucianism for cross-cultural thinking[17].Communitarian insights about civil society, for example, offer alternatives to the traditional Confucian focus on rules-governed social categories.Confucians can look to communitarian thinking for insights about the values and practices that allow ordinary citizens to make meaningful contributions to the political process.

Communitarian Media Ethics

In these two examples of communitarianism—North America’s communitarian democracy and Asia’s Confucianism—it is a social philosophy, not an ethical system perse.In order to contribute effectively to the project of international communication ethics, a mass media ethics needs to add principles and applications that are based on its core idea of communitas.John Stuart Mill’s On Liberty, written in 1859, became the standard book of democratic theory and the basis for his ethics, Utilitarianism, written in 1861[18].The influential Four Theories of the Press is actually one theory—that the media arise from and will be changed by the political-economic system in which they are grounded and that they reflect[19].Similar in structure to Mill and Four Theories, communitas in its various forms is the intellectual home of various kinds of a communitarian media ethics of human dignity and justice.Rather than grounding media ethics in the canons of Western liberalism, communitarian media ethics rises conceptually from the theories of community worldwide.The breadth of the international work on the social philosophy of communitarianism, insures that media ethics based on it is multicultural and gender inclusive.

Communitarian media ethics has been developed principally in two books published by Oxford University Press：Good News： Social Ethics and the Press in 1993 and Ethics for Public Communication by the same authors in 2012[20].Rather than grounding media ethics in the Western canon, communitarian ethics arises conceptually from communitarian democracy, counter-Enlightenment ontology, and theories of community as a normative ideal worldwide.The breadth of these intellectual trajectories insures that communitarian media ethics is multicultural and gender inclusive.

Good News： Social Ethics and the Press identifies individual autonomy as the axis of Enlightenment ethics and positions itself against the procedural democracy of Rawls.The community is the fundamental presupposition.Organizations in this model operate with the standard of mutuality rather than power pragmatism.Reporting facilitates public life and represents the moral landscape within which the human community is formed.

Buck模式下,电流通过采样电路,与单片机内部设定的基准值比较,通过PID算法调节输出占空比,实现电流调整。Boost模式下,锂电池通过变换器进行放电,放电电压由单片机内部设定值决定,由PID算法进行调节,实现电压调整。半桥电路驱动采用IR2104半桥驱动器,如图3所示,单片机输出两路PWM与IR2104输入相连,驱动MOS管控制其导通与关断,实现单片机对变换器输出的控制。

In Ethics for Public Communication, the community is understood to be the basis on which to understand persons.How the moral order works itself out in communities is the issue?Reporting facilitates public life and represents the moral landscape within which the human community is formed.In Ethics for Public Communication, with community bonds the framework, the moral principle of human dignity is decisive.Communitarianism is contrasted with the classical ethics of Aristotle, Mill and Kant.In relationships we define our being and become what we are.As a result, for journalism the moral task cannot be reduced to professional ethics.How the moral order works itself out in communities is the issue, not first of all what practitioners consider virtuous according to their own codes of ethics.Social responsibility from the Hutchins “Commission on Freedom of the Press” resonates with the communitarian media ethics in Ethics for Public Communication.The legacy of the Hutchins Commission was a new vision of cross-cultural news coverage and citizen involvement.In 1947, the Commission published its report in book form, A Free and Responsible Press, and in so doing its theoretical foundations were not included[21].Rather than leave the philosophical basis of social responsibility unattended or ill-defined, Ethics for Public Communication makes explicit the communitarian background of this classic, A Free and Responsible Press.

Human Dignity

A voluntaristic relation between a self and its ends, in Sandel’s view, leads to a poor understanding of political community.Communal goods are then only one contender among many.Community is understood as a possible aim, but not an ingredient of human identity.In this perspective, citizens think of themselves “as participants in a scheme of mutual cooperation, deriving advantages they could not have gained by their own efforts, but not tied to their fellow citizens by bonds whose severance or alteration would change their identity as persons”[9].

In a study of media ethics in thirteen countries across four continents, as described in Communication Ethics and Universal Values, the sacredness of life was consistently identified as the first principle.The rationale for human action was affirmed to be reverence for life on earth.Various communities articulate this protonorm in different terms and illustrate it locally in multiple ways, but every culture can bring to the table this fundamental norm for ordering political relationships and social institutions such as the media.The sacredness of human life is the basis for a responsibility that is global in scope and self-evident regardless of cultures and competing ideologies.The primal sacredness of life is an underlying norm of common oneness.Out of this primordial generality emerges the basic ethical principle of human dignity.

With the sacredness of life as the intellectual starting point instead of individual autonomy, the ethical principle of human dignity is emphasized in working on ethnic diversity, racist language in news, sexism in advertising, and violence in video games.Gender equality in hiring and eliminating racism in organizational culture are no longer dismissed as political correctness, but seen as moral imperatives.Even though globalization is laying a grid over the globe and pulls it toward uniformity around consumption and media technology, local voices are given credibility following the principle of human dignity.When it becomes a priority in the news media, multiculturalism and ethnic pluralism will be enhanced.A community’s multi-colored voices are increasingly understood worldwide as essential for a healthy globe, and the media’s ability to represent those voices well is an important arena for professional development and enriching codes of ethics.The issue for ethical journalism is not the common good understood in parochial terms, but communitas in its richest universal meaning.

Obviously news cannot be ethical unless the challenge of cultural diversity is met, and this requires a fundamental shift from homogeneity to recognition.The basic issue is whether political systems discriminate against their citizens in an unethical manner when major institutions fail to account for the identity of their members.In what sense should the specific central and cultural features of Asian Americans, Buddhists, Jews, the physically disabled, or children publicly matter?Should not public institutions ensure that all citizens share an equal right to the nation’s wealth and due legal process without regard to race, gender, education or religion?The Canadian philosopher Charles Taylor(1994), from the province of French-speaking Quebec, considers the issue of recognizing multicultural groups politically as among the most urgent and vexing on the social agenda[23].Due recognition is not just a courtesy we owe people, but a vital human need.Guaranteeing that people have their own voice, define their own identity, and are respected as equals on their own terms is a foundational issue for the ethics of human dignity and thus for the news media.Language makes community possible; it is the public agent through which our identity is realized.The lingual dimension forms human relationships into meaningful patterns, and its vitality or oppression inevitably conditions our well-being.In that sense, the media as our primary form of public communication are a crucial arena through which human dignity is represented and understood.

Restorative Justice

The concept of justice as right order has dominated the ethics agenda.Justice is present when members of a society receive from its institutions the goods to which they have a right.Plato’s version of justice, developed principally in the Republic is a right order account.Plato delineated a social order built on the right lines, with everybody doing their proper work and performing their proper function.What makes a social order just is that it measures up to the objective norms understood by Plato as the Forms.

In a just society there will be rights conferred on members of the social order by the legislation, social practices, and the speech acts of human beings.For the right order theorists, every right is conferred by institutions.Justice as right order is typically procedural.Procedural justice requires due process and by definition concerns the fairness of decisions and administrative mechanics.Principles and procedures for justice are the outcome of rational choice.When rights and resources are distributed, and appropriate steps are taken to rectify wrong, justice is done.

According to John Rawls, for the principles of justice to be fair, they must be developed in a situation that is itself fair.Justice applies not to the outcome first of all, but to the system.Rawls’ method derives principles of justice without asserting any goal or making justice dependent on that goal[24].In his book, The Law of the Peoples, Rawls argues for a right order conception[25].National sovereignty must be limited by a respect for universal rights and economic assistance to burdened nations, but all concepts in The Law of the Peoples are organized around territorial states and constitutional law.

三峡旅游在空间形态上基本呈现一轴两极三片的空间格局，这其实是一种边界的固化，反映出区域间的合作较少。同时，武汉、成都、重庆都市周边特色旅游地的成熟也在一定程度上遮蔽三峡旅游形象，三峡旅游已非首选旅游目的地。三峡旅游必须进一步提炼特色，丰富旅游形式，积极谋求新的发展，如从长江沿岸转向三峡腹地，逐步形成一种多元的而非固化的空间边界。

Jürgen Habermas’ Moralbewusstsein und kommunikatives Handeln also develops a procedural model of community discourse[26].Justification of community interests is tied to reasoned agreement among those subject to the norms in question.The overriding issue is whether a community’s linguistic forms reflect the moral consciousness of its members.Regarding international justice, Rawls and Habermas present a liberal right-order theory of justice, though with different emphases.

In liberal democratic theory, individual autonomy is the first principle.From the classical liberalism of John Locke and John Stuart Mill to the preoccupation with rights today, individual liberties have priority.As Mill wrote in On Liberty, the free development of individuality is one of the principal ingredients of human happiness, and quite the chief ingredient of individual and social progress[7].One’s self is presumed to be constitute in advance of one’s engagement with others.A sense of community describes a possible aim of individuated selves, but is “not an ingredient of their identity”[8].Liberal political theory presumes that people are distinct from their ends.Individual liberty has priority over the moral order, and therefore ethics is exterior.

我们在辐射环境影响评价的整个过程当中，需要检测人员采取有效的措施来进行评价，但是监测受辐射污染的环境，可以说是最基本的评价方法之一。检测人员在充分的确保污染区域的改造可行性之后，需要监测站提供对受辐射污染区域的真实监测数据，以此来为受污染区域的各项改造工作提供重要的参考。除此之外，工作人员在改造的过程当中，要充分的结合对污染区域的监测数据来进行相应的改造，因为这些数据是最具有科学性的。

Communitarianism’s new direction for media ethics sees justice as inherent in our humanness.Rights are not conferred and maintained as entities of a particular sort, but are inherent.On account of possessing certain properties, all humans have worth.And that worth is sufficient for having rights we are owed.There does not have to be something else that confers those rights.Receiving one’s due arises from one’s intrinsic worth; it is not a privilege for which one has gratitude.The universal generalization that torture of innocent humans is unjust arises from humanity’s intrinsic value, not because right order has been established in criminal law.Intrinsic worth is ontologically prior to mechanisms of conferral.

A prominent example of primary justice as inherent in our humanity is Hannah Arendt[27].The Human Condition is premised on a fierce love of the world.This neighbor-love is a property of social life, distinguishing it from the political.Human culture is true of all societies, since the socio-cultural is a dimension of human nature; but the political domain is constructed later and only by some societies.Arendt insisted that the political should be blocked off from everyday existence through which biological life is maintained for the survival of the species.

Many reviewers of Arendt’s work have criticized her distinction between the political order and the social world, but in maintaining the distinction Arendt emphasizes the role of the socio-cultural in public happiness and freedom.In her Love and St.Augustine, when humans associate communally with one another by approval, agreement and respect, only then is public justice possible.Friendship-based communities, neighborhoods where all are given what they are owed, is the necessary condition for the rise of a political domain of diverse and independent equals.Primary justice belongs first of all to civil society outside government and business.Here justice as intrinsic worth is experienced and known, giving us an ongoing orientation to the world.

The idea of inherent worthiness can best be called restorative justice.Human worthiness is recognized as non-negotiable and where it has been violated or lost, we are under moral obligation to restore it.Human dignity contributes a substantive common good, centered on restorative or living justice.Right order legalism has a reduced concept of the common good, a thin proceduralism designed to free humans from arbitrary externals.The negative freedom of sheer choice without the intervention of authority is considered humanity’s distinctiveness.

Retributive justice (criminal justice) and distributive justice are the standard definitions in the right-order tradition of law and ethics.Justice in an international context should be grounded instead in the inherent dignity of the human species.

Two decades after the Rwandan genocide that killed 800,000 people in 1994. Rwanda is demonstrating to the world the rationale for and opportunities of restorative justice.Overwhelmed by a backlog of court cases, the government is turning from retributive to restorative justice.50,000 accused of genocide have been released from prison with a commitment to ask forgiveness and seek reconciliation.The news media’s expertise on the law and its watchdog role over jurisprudence have become secondary.Public communication is now responsible for facilitating the restoration process.Regarding the issue of justice, the mainstream conception of law and media ethics has been reversed.Instead of the law establishing media codes of ethics around free press /fair trial and legal proceedings in the courtroom, the principle of human dignity sets the agenda for communitarian media ethics.

Transformative Journalism

In communitarian ethics, the news media’s goal is civic transformation.In liberal democracy, neutrality is necessary for persons to be free.To insure the supremacy of individual liberty, the basic institutions of society should be neutral about different conceptions of the good.Liberal theory advocates neutrality out of concern for the autonomy of the individuals that political life seeks to serve. People should be free to choose their own conceptions of the good life by majority rule.

When the axis of media ethics is shifted from individual autonomy to communitarianism, the press’ mission is fundamentally reoriented from the unbiased reporting of neutral data.When operating from a communitarian worldview, the press’ mission is a revitalized citizenship.The aim of reporting becomes civic transformation.Readers, audiences, and new media users are not merely provided with technically correct material, but the press’ goal is morally literate persons.Communitarian ethics contradicts the mainstream imperative for news—the transmission of objective information—making news instead an agent of community development.News serves the people-groups in which it is born rather than the needs and interests of the profession and of the governing elite.The emphasis for journalism is not on abstract principles and rigid prescriptions external to human beings.Acting responsibly,feelings of shame and approval, compassion and decency—these values animate a community’s life and journalists need to understand and account for them.

In democratic liberalism, the press has the crucial role of feeding our individual capacity to reason and make decisions.However, from the perspective of communitarian ethics, the enlightenment function is too static and limited,a half-truth at best.Thinking of news as objective information is too narrow for the cultural and political complexities of the global age.The news media’s mission is not knowledge perse but the vitality of the communities in which they operate.The fundamental challenge in journalism is to bring public life back into existence and enable the public to act as citizens.The long-term issue is what citizens need to improve their society and how such transformation can be accomplished.Following the principle of human dignity, the health of the communities reported on is vital to a healthy news profession.There is a respect for and commitment to the audience and readers, as citizens come to mutual decisions about the most appropriate courses of action.

初步检索出648篇文献，其中中文数据库610篇，英文数据库38篇。去除重复文献73篇，排除期刊不符合纳入标准的386篇，阅读标题和摘要、排除非随机对照研究76篇，排除未达到纳入标准的文献84篇，排除无有效数据提取的文献11篇，最终纳入18篇文献，均为中文，纳入文献基本特征见表1。

In contrast to liberalism’s standard of avoiding harm to others, a media ethics based on communitarianism insists on empathy and nurturance in all interactions.In those terms, we understand more clearly the press’ purpose of civic transformation.The primary mission of journalism is not the watchdog role but facilitating civil society.Various social structures (family, religious organizations, schools and government) are addressed in this framework.Communitarianism insures that the public is taken seriously, and emphasizes crucial dimensions of that public—gender, race and ethnicity.

Media ethics based on communitarianism will ground journalism historically and geographically, so that it represents adequately the narratives that make human existence possible.Community-based reporting will resonate with the attitudes,definitions and language of the people being represented.Rather than presenting the issues top-down—defined by the mayor and police chief and CEOs—the public is considered active and responsible.Therefore, the news media enable communities to come to terms with their problems themselves.To meet the communitarian challenge, journalists will need to identify representative voices and communities rather than rely on the spectacular ones that are anecdotal and idiosyncratic.

Communitarians challenge reporters to give priority to a community’s ongoing process of moral formation.The possibility exists in principle.Charles Taylor (1985), for example, emphasizes that moral judgments are capable of rational elucidation[28].Our moral commitments—respect for the dignity of others, for instance—cannot be personal intuitions only, but must be nurtured through discourse derived from and shared by the community.As journalism deals with the moral dimension in news, editorials, features and investigative reporting, it is meeting a need the community recognizes deep in its being.

Since communities are not merely functional, but knit together by an admixture of sociocultural values, the fundamental question is whether reporting, persuasion and entertainment open windows on the moral landscape.To resonate intelligently with a community’s values means that professional communicators need to know the ethical principle of human dignity that they share with the public at large.In the communitarian perspective, practitioners understand the moral dimension in interactive terms—with reporters, those in persuasion, script writers and producers resonating critically with the same debates over authentic social existence as the people themselves.When the moral imagination is invigorated, the ethical media enlarge for cultures, races, and ethnic groups their understanding of what it means to be human.With civic transformation the defining purpose of communitarian news, citizens can distinguish worthy communities from malevolent ones.They can help articulate community goods within everyday discourse in the age of Twitter that is often too hurried and disjointed to establish a common good on its own.

Conclusion

Theories of media ethics that are global are based on the social philosophy that sees community as a normative ideal.The trajectories from communitarian liberalism and from Confucian ren, demonstrate that communitas is a way of being-in-the-world and forms the conceptual home of transnational media ethics.Community as ontologically distinct from atomism is the overriding issue.As a social philosophy with deep roots and worldwide parameters, communitarianism is the basis for theories of media ethics that are ethnically diverse, cross-cultural, and gender inclusive.

As a social philosophy, communitarianism distinguishes relativism from pluralism in media ethics.For relativists, the right and valid are only known in local space and native languages.Moral principles have not application outside the culture in which they are created.Pluralism takes culture and history seriously, but means that different perspectives with a common core can enrich one another.Community as ontologically distinct from individualism is the axis around which the two genealogies of communitarian democracy and Confucian humanity revolve.Therefore their various concepts, histories, and problems are only dialects of the same language—one of pluralities that feed from and into one another and are held together by a body of communal ideas against Western individualism.

A historic shift is occurring in media ethics.The complicated cases and issues are now dramatically international in scope.Momentous news events in the global age are typically transnational and cannot be isolated within one country without distorting them.In the diaspora, common now around the world, communities interested in local news live and work elsewhere.Global digital technologies make citizen boundaries irrelevant for news events, and the social media insist on electronic networks rather than political boundaries as the primary frame of reference.Today’s electronic globalism requires a repositioning of media ethics to cyber-international.A media ethics of human dignity, restorative justice, and civic transformation seeks to answer that challenge.

(1)燃气轮机属于旋转叶轮式流体机械，通过压气机将空气逐级增压，送到燃烧室与喷入的燃气混合燃烧生成高温高压的气体，并在透平中膨胀做功，带动发电机转子高速旋转，其发电效率约20～38%。采用燃气-蒸汽联合循环，将燃气轮机的烟气引入余热锅炉，产生蒸汽带动汽轮机后，发电效率可提高到约50%。燃气轮机的余热形式为烟气，烟气温度400～650℃。余热利用可考虑回收烟气用来制冷，烟气也可以进余热锅炉产生蒸汽再供热或制冷。

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