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“MY PUTREFACTION IS MYRRH:”THE LEXICOGRAPHY OF DECAY, GILDED COFFINS,AND THE GREEN SKIN OF OSIRIS

更新时间:2016-07-05

By studying the vocabulary of rot and decay, the opportunity presents itself to engage one of the fundamental beliefs of the Egyptian culture from the aspect of its first principles. The reason why this matters is because some of the 20th century translators that we have today are based upon emendations made because the idioms did not make sense to translators who viewed ancient myth through a 19th century lens. By understanding what the Egyptians thought about decay, we can get insight into what they believed about death and what they expected from the afterlife. And in the same manner, we can perhaps discover a context that can be used to reconcile several interpretive problems that are encountered in the Coffin Texts.

The scene from the second antechamber at Luxor Temple depicts a procession of priests bearing offerings that were to be presented to Amun-Re from King Amenhotep III.1 Porter and Moss 1972, 322. Priests with musical instruments lead the procession while other priests carry the offerings in pds chests decorated with uraei. A question rises as to why it was necessary for these priests to bring in the offerings using these chests since the king was also high priest? The other priests would appear to be redundant if it were not for the problem of liminal inertia.2 Dowling 2006, 16–17. Objects in profane space remain profane unless they are converted for sacred use.3 Eliade 1959, 12. Offerings are placed into sacred boxes that are carried by ritual procession into sacred space.Into the boxes are put profane items; out from the boxes come sacred items now useful for service to the gods. That is the essence of ritual conversion.

However, when the idea of ritual conversion is connected to other aspects of Egyptian ritual, e.g. funerary rituals, it brings to light much of the suppositional nature of Egyptological interpretation. Questions about basic funerary practices have been subject to conjecture, such as why New Kingdom sarcophagi were covered in gold foil. For example, John Taylor in his 2001 article suggested that gold represented the power of the sun, imperishability, and being the flesh of the gods, but Taylor deemed this importance to the Egyptian as the symbolic hope of a future resurrection and suggested that the black color of Osiris was to be associated with fertility.4 Taylor 2001, 166. While Taylor’s conjectures are grounded more in coffin typology than texts,5 Taylor’s methodology uses color symbolism associated with types of coffins and adds secondary sources primarily for support. He cites only two texts, Book of the Dead Chapters 151 and 182, but only for their illustrations (Taylor 2001, 164). textual work is not immune from the same sort of conjecture. Translators have emended certain idioms in order for them to make sense, e.g., “a good putrefaction” being glossed to “a final putrefaction” in Raymond O. Faulkner’s Ancient Egyptian Coffin Texts spell 479.6 Faulkner 1977, vol. II, 121 and vol. II, 123, n. 6. In response,this study examines some of these idiomatic expressions using the lexemes of rot and decay as a methodological starting point.

“知道了。”话虽这么说,可是,我并未打消要吃宵夜的念头。趁妈妈上床休息的时候,我跑到冰箱前,拿了一块巧克力。可谁知,一回头妈妈就站在我身后。

Like other areas of lexicography, the vocabulary of decomposition has received remarkably little attention since the initial publication of the Wörterbuch, despite Alan H. Gardiner’s 1948 review article.7 Gardiner 1948, 12–18. Gardiner only reviewed the first two pages of the Wörterbuch but cautioned that “out of the twenty words on the first two pages of Wb., I have found all but three urgently calling for further elucidation” (Gardiner 1948, 17). The results of my study reveal that idiomatic expressions relating to the decomposition of the human body presume a kind of ritual conversion that references three kinds of expected outcomes:(1) preservation of the deceased, (2) restoration of decomposition, and (3)transfiguration of decay.8 While this article deals with the lexicography of putrefaction in the Coffin and Pyramid Texts as it relates to the topic of ritual conversion, see Steuer and Saunders 1959 for a discussion of Greek medical terms that are used in association with putrefaction from the perspective of aetiological concerns raised by later Egyptian texts.

On the surface, the Egyptians had a couple of general terms for decomposition.The first is the word rpw, generally accepted to mean “to decay/rot.”9 Wb II, 414. Another term that occurs frequently is“be foul/putrefy,” and it appears in a substantival form meaning “putrefaction.” This second term is often used in phrases that imply advanced decomposition and is often associated with iwtyw, “corruption,” which implies that there is an element of ritual impurity in the process of decay. The use of the two terms together, e.g. in CT 336, reveals that the presence of wȝȝt makes the individual ritually impure,and ritual impurity prevents the deceased from entering into sacred space or the presence of the gods.10 Dieleman 2005, 213.

When a person dies, the cadaver enters into a state of lividity where all the blood settles to the lowest point of gravity. Plasma separates from the red blood cells, and rigor mortis sets in. This is the state of the corpse during the first 36 hours. Candidates for mummification would have had their internal organs removed, been ritually bathed, and packed in natron. Enzymes in the tissues would start a process of autolysis that permits opportunistic organisms, e.g. gut bacteria, to establish themselves, causing the body to bloat, an effect that the Egyptians noticed in the limbs of the corpse.11 CT 755 (ECT VI, 384i–k).

Within 48 hours, in a process called “marbling,” the skin turned greenish black.12 Cantor 2010, 76. Compare this effect to the coloration of Osiris13 CT 665 (ECT VI, 292). or other mummiform deities, which are often green or black. While several authors have addressed the symbolic meaning of black as a skin color in iconography and coffin decoration with most ascribing the meaning to a fertility interpretation,14 Brunner-Traut 1977, 125; Barta 1980, 1235; Roehrig 1992, 51; Wilkinson 1994, 108–116; Aufrere 1999, 26–29; Robins 2001, 291–293; Hartwig 2008, 123. the fertility interpretation is particularly problematic because other mummiform deities are portrayed with green or black skin that are not typically associated with fertility,e.g. the mummiform Ptah found in the tomb of Nefertari (QV66).15 Corzo and Afshar 1993, 36, fig. 8. We also find green and black as a facial coloration in other depictions of deities, e.g., a mummiform Nephthys is portrayed with green skin in the tomb of Henuttawy(QV73).16 Demas and Agnew 2012, 56. On the Stele of Diesenesyt (OIM 18280) dating to the Late Period, a mummiform Imsety, the human-headed son of Horus, is portrayed with green skin following behind Osiris.17 Henderson 2009, 97. While many commentators prefer a fertility interpretation connecting the color with the black Egyptian soil or the green of living plants, this interpretation seems to miss the prima facie connotation with that of a putrefying corpse. A potential putrefaction interpretation, which will be supported by texts in the remainder of this article, seems to make more sense than the fertility interpretation since this skin coloration was assigned to some mummiform deities that had few ties to fertility and strong associations with the processes of decay.18 This decomposition interpretation could be extended to other gods associated with death and decay,e.g. Anubis; however, because the case could be argued that these animal deities are being displayed with their respective natural coloration, these examples cannot be offered up as evidence.

Additionally, as the deceased continued to decay, the skin acted as a balloon and the decay by bacteria caused the body to swell, fill with foul smelling fluid and gas, and eventually burst.19 Cantor 2010, 77. This can make the dead seem as if they were shaking or convulsing, or that pieces of the corpse had been eaten as the release of gases can create holes in the cadaver, effects mentioned in CT 755. As the body decayed further “mold” sets in; s is typically used of bread in the repertoire formula “the bread which will not go moldy, and beer which will not go sour,” but can also refer to the mold upon a corpse either literally20 CT 519 (ECT VI, 108g). or as a metaphor.21 CT 996 (ECT VII, 212c).

Finally, the body rotted until it released a built up greenish black liquid as “purge fluid,” a product which the Egyptians call rw,which past translators called“efflux.” Small amounts of purge fluid occur during the mummification process,so its appearance would have been common to those who prepared the dead. But occasionally the decay process would continue for years after interment.22 Cantor 2010, 79.

Two mummies from TT 317 show signs of post-mummification decomposition,and Head-B, which is a young adult female, possesses decay that is quite pronounced. Nevertheless, what is particularly interesting about this burial is that there is evidence that the flesh of this corpse had been gilded with gold foil.23 Morimoto 1985, 2 and fig. 3.

His brother Seth threw him down in the land of Nedit.

As we explore how the lexemes of rot and decay were used, it helps to turn our attention towards PT 532 as a rubric: 27 PT 532 occurs in the pyramids of Pepi I (Allen 2005, 383), Merenre (ibid., 387), Pepi II (ibid.,392), and Queen Wedjebni (Allen 2013, 285).

The d barque is released for its lord.

The d barque is released for its guide.28 ȝ here could act as an amphiboly meaning either “one upon the prow” or “protector.” See Jones 1988, 174. It is also an alliterative device tying this phrase to the ȝt-bird in the next couplet.

平昌冬奥会中国体育代表团共获得82个参赛资格。其中,黑龙江运动员获得41个席位,占50%比例。另外,非正式名单中自由式滑雪空中技巧队有4名替补,其中有我省3人,计入替补运动员中国代表团共有86名运动员参赛,其中包含我省44人。另外,代表团中有5名运动员是经我省输送到外省,计入此5人,我省参赛运动员为49人,占比为56.98%,堪称代表团的绝对主力。对冰雪产业具备一定专业知识和经营管理知识的多功能人才的匮乏[1],同样阻碍了黑龙江省冰雪产业的发展。

Isis comes.

Nephthys comes.

One of them from the West.

One of them from the East.

One of them as a ȝt-bird.

One of them as a kite.29 This couplet is reversed in CT 73.

They have found Osiris.

The ancient Egyptian aversion to decomposition as expressed in CT 1011 and CT 101424 CT 1011 (ECT VII, 227d); 1014 (ECT VII, 232p–233h). compelled them to preserve the corpses of the deceased. The purpose of this has been suggested to be largely driven by the idea that the body was needed as a place for the soul to return to, and coffins could act as a proxy if the body lacked integrity.25 Taylor 2001, 164. This belief eventually gave rise to anthropoid coffins in the Middle Kingdom which were over time increasingly covered with gold foil until the Third Intermediate Period.26 Ibid., 166.

And Osiris said “Go from me.”

优势互补、互利共赢为双方企业的发展带来了繁忙与机遇。在到场来宾共同见证下,奥特奇与来自中国各地的经销商签订战略合作协议,共同开启赛土丰全面营销的新时代。

As we examine this text, we first notice that it is in couplet form. The first six couplets set a mythological stage that will help us to understand rot and decay in the grand scheme of Egyptian cosmology.

The first couplet mentions the d being released in a shrine shaped like a boat called a barque. The imagery is supposed to invoke a god who represented dominion and stability being personified as a deified symbol going on procession in miniature temples radiating the sovereign power of the king across the entire landscape of the world.

The second couplet mentions Isis and Nephthys, whose roles are to restore the body of Osiris. Already in the first two couplets, the players of the mythological stage are presented where they can interact with the problem of decomposition,while in the third couplet the extremes of the West and East are mentioned to draw out that idea of cyclic eternity.

2.3.1 核心机构分析 研究机构象征着相关的研究成果的生产、创造和扩散源领域,对其进行可视化分析可以评估的科研实力及其对影响,为学科布局、机构合作科研人员进修以及人才引进提供参考依据[10]。通过检索得到的期刊进行整理、统计得到图4。

The fifth and sixth couplets refer to the Osirian myth. The fifth couplet is an allusion to the murder of Osiris and the discovery of his body. Seth as the brother of Osiris is mentioned in context to the burial of Osiris in Nedit. The name Nedit is also significant being an example of alliteration; the verb “to cast down” (ndi)is grammatically fronted to rhyme with the land Nedit (ndt) as a memory aid to remind the listener of the murder of Osiris on the bank of the Nedit canal.31 Quirke 2015, 144.

数据转换完成之后,就可以进行数据挖掘的操作。首先要设置最小可信度和支持度,如果设置了过高的支持度,那么就会有较少的挖掘规则参与其中,能较快的得出挖掘结果。本文采用的是FP-Growth算法和INFP-Growth算法,并且设置0.5的可信度和2的最小支持度,相应的挖掘关联规则如下:

余额宝毕竟是一种虚拟理财模式,依靠于网络,对于大多数人来说代表着一种不安全,风险。尤其是对于一些年龄大的投资者来说,不会将资金轻易转到余额宝,所以余额宝的客户群体主要还是一些年轻的“屌丝”投资者。

Both Osiris and Seth play a critical dialectic role in the decomposition texts.It is interesting to note that because these are funerary texts as opposed to royal inscriptions, Seth plays nemesis to Osiris, whereas in royal inscriptions Seth is nemesis to Horus. Osiris’ role in the decomposition texts is critical to how these texts function ritually and how one is to view ritual conversion and the ultimate fate of the deceased (apotheosis). In CT 833, the purge fluid that ran from Osiris,his putrescence, wȝt undergoes transformation into “cold water.” 32 CT 833 (ECT VII, 34i–k). “He was given the water even of his father Osiris, Hear , this your water, your cold water, the purge fluid that comes from the god, the putrefaction of Osiris.” The decay of Osiris from something impure into something desirable is the drama that becomes re-enacted in the ritual conversion of decay in Egyptian myth.

Middle-Egyptian Stories. Brussels: La Fondation Égyptologique.

CT 755 explains that the reason a man does not putrefy in the realm of the dead is because of vicarious association with the members of Osiris which are described as inert, i.e., they do not change, immutability is commuted, and decay is arrested. In this coffin text, identification with Osiris is said to prevent the flesh from putrefying, or swelling up (bloating), or shaking (when the corpse explodes from the accumulated gases of decomposition), or make foul fluid (purge fluid).

The Coffin Texts, however, suggest that the role of the gods extends beyond arrest of decomposition. The source of the power of Isis and Nephthys is said to be Osiris in CT 69: “You will not be wiped out or obliterated, you will have no purge fluid, you will have no putrescence, for it will be missing from you through the totality of Osiris,”44 CT 168 (ECT I, 295a–c). who in turn derives his power from Geb, the earth god.45 CT 96 (ECT II, 77d). This suggests a second outcome of ritual conversion where the products of rot and decay are restored and where the decay is reversed. CT 850 suggests that Nut serves to “join your bones together, knits your sinews, make your members firm,take away your decay.”46 CT 850 (ECT VII, 54t). Here the coffin text demonstrates a second outcome of ritual conversion, where the cosmologic gods, Geb and Nut, empower the restoration of the dead.

Essentially, the text is making a reference to a liminal state, i.e. a state of transition between the profane and sacred, where the dead is vulnerable to attack by the forces of darkness.36 Te Velde 1967, 92. This also means that there is a final state at which the dead ultimately arrives, which leads to further consideration of PT 532:

They prevent you from rotting (rpw)

by your name that is Anubis.

They prevent your putrefaction (wȝȝt)

by your name that is the Jackal of Upper Egypt hitting the ground.

They prevent the foul smell of your corpse

And it happened his name became Sokar.30 “Sokar” as a name is an amphiboly. It is both the name of the falcon deity of cyclic rebirth as well as sounds like sr which means “to beat.”

by your name that is Horus of ȝti.

They prevent the putrefaction (wȝȝ)

of Horus of the East.

They prevent the putrefaction

of Horus, Lord of the pct people.

They prevent the putrefaction

of Horus of the Underworld.

They prevent the putrefaction

of Horus, Lord of the Two Lands.

(4)《缁衣》简13:“子曰:禹立三年,百姓以仁道,剀(岂)必尽仁。”(剀,见母微部;岂,溪母微部。)

PT 532 takes the preceding mythological content and ties it to a litany of seven“they prevent” statements that attribute the actions of the twin goddesses (Isis and Nephthys). However, what is also interesting is that the couplets follow the formula of “they prevent X by your name that is Y.” This formulation invokes by name the power of deity. The thinking of Egyptian magic is that names themselves have power, and to call upon the name of a god is to have some influence with the innate nature of that god in such a way that the name itself was equated with magic.37 Ritner 2008, 22 and 26.

Isis and Nephthys, the two goddesses that appear on the prow and stern of the barque, cooperate to prevent the decomposition of Osiris by invoking the names of the other gods (twice through the epithets of Anubis and five times through Horus). Isis and Nephthys play a special role in the ritual journey of the dead.They escorted the dead to the afterlife, from the place of mummification to the tomb. The use of the barque bier ritually converted the body of the dead for the afterlife. Because Isis and Nephthys act as the twins who revivified Osiris after being dismembered by Seth, they are also the goddesses that piece the dead together. CT 932 refers to Isis, lady of all, who collects the purge fluid and gathers putrescence.38 CT 932 (ECT VII, 132k). And in CT 168, “The uniting of riverbanks. The hair of Isis is knotted to Nephthys, and the reverse; putrefaction is left boatless, and the streams dry up.”39 CT 168 (ECT III, 28a–c). CT 168 is an amphiboly discussing a condition of drought on one level while inverting this condition as a metaphor for the arrest of decay,perhaps this is even in observation of the fact that things decay less when conditions are drier.

This idea that the divine can arrest rot and decay is a first outcome of ritual conversion, e.g. CT 822, “my corpse will not putrefy,”40 CT 822 (ECT VII, 23a). and CT 838, “Isis has stopped for herself his flesh and his purge fluid (from falling) to the ground.”41 CT 838 (ECT VII, 40j). CT 755 states that the “tears of the god are the putrefaction of the member in me;it will not putrefy and it will not rot, [it] will not become maggoty, it will not become corrupt.”42 CT 755 (ECT VI, 385d). This is perhaps the most intuitive form of ritual conversion since the effects are tied to the process of mummification; however, this gives the programmatic agenda of Egyptian religion short-shrift. For the ancient Egyptian the benefits of lacking decay went beyond the nightly visitation. To be without decay meant a reprieve from hard labor in the afterlife per CT 432/433.43 “Not to putrefy and not to labor in the necropolis.” CT 432 (ECT V, 280a) and 433 (ECT V, 281a).

由此,齐克加油站带领员工把惠农政策发挥好,再加大员工现场营销的力度,利用农户带动一些例如玻璃水、防冻液、润滑油、化肥等非油品销量。

Seth also plays an important role in the decay of the deceased. He is called the one who “drunk [bodily fluids]” and “Seth… who eats entrails” in PT 691B.33 PT 691B, 2127c–2128a (Faulkner 1969, 54). The idea is that upon the murder of his brother, Seth has transformed into a detritivore.34 A detritivore is defined as a “(h)eterotroph that feeds on dead material (detritus). The detritus most typically is of plant origin, but may include the dead remains of small animals” (Allaby 2009, 259). Seth is not the initiator of decay but he needs that which is ritually unclean and has a vested interest in promoting decay. Seth is also referred to as the “god who takes souls” and “laps up corruption” in CT 335.35 CT 335 (ECT IV, 320b and 321a). The description here is of a dog who is opportunistically eating at the deceased, licking up their purge fluid, and taking bites out of their souls. The image of dogs as detritivore is an especially important symbol in Ancient Near Eastern literature because of their roles as scavengers that disassemble corpses and scatter the bones, an anathema to the integrity of the dead.

In texts of this kind, words relating to the acts of knitting and sewing are common. CT 67 has the words st r.k, an idiom which Faulkner admitted not being able to translate.47 Faulkner 1973, 64, n. 28. CT 67 (ECT I, 288g). This idiom literally says “he knits your loins from X.”48 CT 67 (ECT I, 288g). A similar idiom is used in CT 67 (ECT I, 293i). Also see related idioms in CT 509 (ECT IV, 95), 608 (ECT VI, 221). The X in question can be from living people, from the justified dead, or from the gods. The idea behind this idiom is that the goddesses are restoring the dead from other sources in order to repair the damage caused by decomposition. In essence,the products of decay become transposed and unite with those external sources to repair the body of the dead.49 This is vaguely similar to the modern concept of the organ transplant where bad body parts are replaced with good parts, but in this case the parts are being replaced with those of similar or higher beings; such as, that from the gods. The repair of decay also included rejuvenation, CT 895, “By the hand of you the purge fluid which ran from you, your heart will not tire possessing it. Look, look! Be young, be young.”50 CT 895 (ECT VII, 105a–c).

The idea of the dead assuming a vicarious role with Osiris is common in the funerary texts.51 Hays 2012, 167–168. But where a vicarious association is a proxy act, CT 755 seems to suggest a mystical union or a kind of transfiguration where the body of the deceased shares in or merges with the body of Osiris himself. While vicarious association is evident in these texts, the attributes of the deceased become those of the god because they are made from pieces of the god. To the degree that the deceased is knitted together from pieces of the divine, the deceased becomes godlike. Hence with a text like the Cannibal Hymn where the King consumes the divine, he is in fact assimilating the power of divinity and facilitating his final transformation.52 PT 273–274 (Sethe 1908, 409c–410e).

This suggests a third outcome of ritual conversion, which is to become transformed into products used in the drama of the gods. CT 334 has putrefaction transformed into myrrh that Hathor places on her head, “my putrefaction is myrrh,”53 CT 334 (ECT IV, 183b). and the stench of decay is transformed into incense which she censes to herself,54 CT 334 (ECT IV, 183c). and purge fluid of decomposition is transformed into the knw-oil which Hathor places on her flesh. In this spell, the products of decomposition become ritually transformed into precious things that are ritually pure and fit for service to the gods.

The products of decomposition had “creative potential”55 Nyord 2009, 465. and were even seen to provide the raw materials for the creation of gods. In CT 78 purge fluid is used by the god Shu to create the chaos gods.56 CT 78 (ECT II, 19e). In PT 510, purge fluid becomes the material used to create god-like entities, “I am purge fluid, I have issued from the creating waters, I am a snake.”57 PT 510 (Sethe 1910, 1146a). Conversely, CT 519 takes ritual transformation to its ultimate form, “Oh , raise yourself upon your metal bones and the gold of its limbs that is of a royal god. It will not become moldy. It will not putrefy. It will not perish.”58 Contrary to Faulkner’s emendation, I would read the texts as ifw.k [nb]w cw.f pw n nsw. CT 519 (ECT VI, 108c–i). This text parallels the resilience and strength of metals with the abolition of decomposition, but more importantly it shows ritual transformation of the flesh into gold, which is said to be the flesh of the gods.Compare this to the Shipwrecked Sailor where the body of the serpent deity was“overlayed in gold.”59 cw.f srw m nbw. Shipwrecked Sailor, 64–65 (Blackman 1972, 43: 8–9). In CT 294, the deceased describes his transformation, “My head and my back are of lapis, my belly is of electrum, my neck of the gold of Iuu.”60 CT 294 (ECT IV, 46–47).

(1)样品A的制备(工艺A):白术、豆蔻、大黄、炙甘草、1/3山药粉碎成细粉,黄芪等其余味药材煎煮2次,每次加10倍量水,煎煮2 h,滤过,滤液减压浓缩成稠膏,与上述药材细粉混匀,真空干燥,粉碎制成1 g细粉相当于1.41 g生药。

Brunner-Traut, E. 1977.

This understanding helps us to grasp difficult texts like CT 479. Religious language that talks about a “good putrefaction” now makes sense because it is not the expectation of the finality of decay but the expectation of ritual transformation into inviolable deity. It is a linguistic inversion done for religious purpose where the figurative meaning supersedes the literal meaning.62 Other religions do this as well, e.g., “I have been crucified with Christ” (Gal 2:20) is a phrase from the Apostle Paul not pointing to any actual capital punishment but was a literary device used to express figuratively the death of his old way of life.

In conclusion, Egyptian religion concerning the fate of the dead is complex,holding diverse and sometimes inconsistent beliefs in a state of tension. Using the lexemes of decay as found within the Coffin Texts, this study has shown that the portrayal of Osiris with green or black skin was primarily because he was being portrayed as a corpse in an advanced stage of decomposition as was demonstrated by other non-fertility mummiform deities that were also depicted having green or black skin. This study has found that ritual conversion of decomposition resulted in three kinds of perceived outcomes, namely:prevention, restoration, and transfiguration, and provides us a deeper appreciation as to why the ancient Egyptians sought to use gold in their burials as well as a possibly richer understanding of several difficult texts.

Bibliography

Allaby, M. 2009.

A Dictionary of Zoology. 3rd ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

博弈论模型是参与方对选择策略以及所获取的效益的研究。在没有信号控制的路段,因为缺乏信号灯易造成行人和机动车在穿越过街时通行权不明而互相抢行的行为,使得道路安全性和效率性下降。通过建立行人和机动车二次过街完全信息双人博弈模型,将行人的心理特性、速度特性和延误与交通规则相关联,综合分析二次过街过程的冲突问题,得到行人二次过街行为中行人在抢行和让行情境下的效益函数,为行人二次过街行为的深入研究提供新的角度,为解决行人过街交通管理和决策提供新思路。

Allen, J. P. 2005.

The Ancient Egyptian Pyramid Texts. Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature.

—— 2013.

A New Concordance of the Pyramid Texts. vol. 4. Providence: Brown University.

Aufrere, S. 1999.

“Les couleurs sacrees dans l’Egypte ancienne: vibration d’une lumiere minerale.”Techne 9–10: 26–29.

在数据造假方面,传统的方法是选择该学科的一个专家,将文章送审,让学科专家验证数据真实性。互联网环境下,可以在百度的“知道”栏目上发布提问,或在博客、微博、论坛上发起讨论,经一番交锋,集众人之智慧,数据的真实性就自然水落石出。

Barta, W. 1980.

“Materialmagie und -symbolik.” Lexikon der Ägyptologie 3: 1233–1237.

Blackman, A. M. 1972.

保宁醋内含丰富的氨基酸、维生素、糖类及无机盐。制曲所用古井水富铜低镉;麦麸内含丰富的微量元素,对人体有益;名贵中药药曲更具有丰富的保健价值[28]。

天文小知识:恒星因明暗不同,可分为6等。肉眼刚刚能看到的为6等星,比6等星亮一些的为5等星,依次类推,亮星为1等,更亮的星为0等。

Ritual conversion is essential to the understanding of apotheosis in Egyptian eschatology. Ritual conversion of rot and decay into myrrh and precious metals precedes reconstruction into the divine form.61 Cf. the Roman Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation. This transformation is more than mere resurrection. Purge fluid and stench are replaced by knw-oil and incense.Flesh and bone are replaced by gold and iron. The belief in apotheosis is reflected in funerary practice as anthropoid coffins and even the mummies became gilded in gold foil. This belief was probably the response to the fear that decomposition created a liminal state, where the dead were vulnerable. This funerary practice probably provided a kind of insurance for the dead by accelerating apotheosis in ritual, and gives to us a better explanation for the practice than the conventional color symbolism view.

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David A. Falk
《Journal of Ancient Civilizations》2018年第1期文献

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