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首页 > 论文问答 > 土木工程毕业设计参考文献英文怎么写

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刚好我也在做毕业设计 把我的给你用吧  Traditional Construction Procedures  As mentioned before, construction under the traditional construction procedure is performed by While they would like to satisfy the owner and the building designers, contractors have the main objective of making a Hence, their initial task is to prepare a bid price based on an accurate estimate of construction This requires development of a concept for performance of the work and a construction time After a contract has been awarded, contractors must furnish and pay for all materials, equipment, power, labor, and supervision required for The owner compensates the contractors for construction costs and   A general contractor assumes overall responsibility for construction of a The contractor engages subcontractors who take responsibility for the work of the various trades required for For example, a plumbing contractor installs the plumbing, an electrical contractor installs the electrical system, and an elevator contractor installs Their contracts are with the general contractor, and they are paid by the general   Sometimes, in addition to a general contractor, the owner contracts separately with specialty contractors, such as electrical and mechanical contractors, who perform a substantial amount of the work require for a Such contractors are called prime Their work is scheduled and coordinated by the general contractor, but they are paid directly by the   Sometimes also, the owner may use the design-build method and award a contract to an organization for both the design and construction of a Such organizations are called design-build One variation of this type of contract is employed by developers of groups of one-family homes or low-rise apartment The homebuilder designs and constructs the dwellings, but the design is substantially completed before owners purchase the   Administration of the construction procedure often is Consequently, some owners seek assistance from an expert, called a professional construction manager, with extensive construction experience, who receives a The construction manager negotiates with general contractors and helps select one to construct the Managers usually also supervise selection of During construction, they help control costs, expedite equipment and material deliveries, and keep the work on In some cases, instead, the owner may prefer o engage a construction program manager, to assist in administrating both design and   Construction contractors employ labor that may or may not be Unionized craftspeople are members of unions that are organized by construction trades, such as carpenter, plumber, and electrician unions, Union members will perform only the work assigned to their   During construction, all work should be For this purpose, the owner, often through the architect and consultants, engages The field inspectors may be placed under the control of an owner’s representative, who may be titled clerk of the works, architect’s superintendent, engineer’s superintendent, or resident The inspectors have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets the requirements of the contract documents and is performed under safe Such inspections may be made at frequent   In addition, inspections also are made by representatives of one or more governmental They have the responsibility of ensuring that construction meets legal requirements and have little or no concern with detailed conformance with the contract Such legal inspections are made periodically or at the end of certain stages of One agency that will make frequent inspections is the local or state building department, whichever has The purpose of these inspections is to ensure conformance with the local or state building   Following is a description of the basic traditional construction procedure for a multistory   After the award of a construction contract to a general contractor, the owner may ask the contractor to start a portion of the work before signing of the contract by giving the contractor a letter of intent or after signing of the contract by issuing a written notice to The contractor then obtains construction permits, as required, form governmental agencies, such as the local building, water, sewer, and highway   The general contractor plans and schedules construction operations in detail and mobilizes equipment and personnel for the Subcontractors are notified of the contract award and issued letters of intent or awarded subcontracts, then are given, at appropriate times, notices to   Before construction starts, the general contractor orders a survey to be made of adjacent structures and terrain, both for the record and to become knowledgeable of local A survey is then made to lay out   Field offices for the contractor are erected on or near the If desirable for safety reasons to protect passersby, the required to be removed from the site are demolished and the debris is carted   Next, the site is prepared to receive the This work may involve grading the top surface to bring it to the proper elevations, excavating to required depths for basement and foundations, and shifting of utility For deep excavations, earth sides are braced and the bottom is   Major construction starts with the placement of foundations, on which the building This is followed by the erection of load-bearing walls and structural Depending on the height of the building, ladders, stairs, or elevators may be installed to enable construction personnel to travel from floor to floor eventually to the Also, hoists may be installed to lift materials to upper If needed, temporary flooring may be placed for use of   As the building rises, pipes, ducts, and electric conduit and wiring are Then, permanent floors, exterior walls, and windows are At the appropriate time, permanent elevators are If required, fireproofing is placed for steel Next, fixed partitions are built and the roof and its covering are put is place,  Finishing operations There include installation of the following: ceilings; tile; wallboard; wall paneling; plumbing fixtures; heating furnaces; air-conditioning equipment; heating and cooling devices for rooms; escalators; floor coverings; window glass; movable partitions; doors; finishing hardware; electrical equipment and apparatus, including lighting fixtures, switches, transformers, and controls; and other items called for in the drawings and Field offices, fences, bridges, and other temporary construction must be removed from the Utilities, such as gas, Electricity, and water, are hooked up to the The sit is landscaped and Finally, the building interior is painted and   The owner’s representatives then give the building a final If they find that the structure conforms with the contract documents, the owner accepts the project and gives the general contractor final payment on issuance by the building department of a certificate of occupancy, which indicates that the completed building meets building-code   传统的施工程序  众所周知,在传统的施工程序中进行施工的承包商。尽管他们想满足业主和建筑设计师的要求,但是最终还是以赚取利润为主要目标的。因此,他们最初的任务是对编写投标价格的建筑成本进行准确的估计。这就需要进行前期调查的工作并且做出施工时间表。等合约批出后,施工方必须提供所有材料并支付其费用,设备,电力,劳动力。业主此时需要进行必要的监督。  一个总承包商承担一个建筑整体的责任。从事分包的承建商则需承担建造工程所需的各个工作。例如,管道承包商安装水管,电业承办商安装电气系统,电梯则由电梯承包商安装。他们与总承包商签订合同,费用由总承包商支付。  有时候,除了一个总承包商,还有各种专业承包商,如电气和机械承包商,执行工作时需要与业主签订合同。这种承包商被称为间接承包商。他们的工作,由总承包商协调,但它们都是由业主直接联系。  还有些时候,业主可以使用设计建造方法同时兼有设计和建筑施工单位的职能。这些单位被称为设计建造承包商。这方面的一个类型的合同聘用的变化是由一户住宅或低层住宅建筑群的开发。在房屋建筑设计和建造的住房,但设计之前需要由购买房屋的业主完成。  施工过程管理往往是困难的。因此,一些业主会去寻求专家的协助,这些专家被称为专业施工经理,他们具有丰富的施工经验。施工经理与总承包商进行谈判,并选择其中一个项目。施工经理通常还监督分包商。在施工期间,它们有助于控制成本,加快运送设备和材料,并保持工作的进度。在依法行政,协助设计和建设的情况下,业主可以选择从事建筑项目经理。  建筑承包商雇用的劳动力,一般有大工和小工。大工再建筑工程中从事技术活,如木工,管道工,工会成员和电工工会,小工则执行了分配给他们的工作。  在施工期间,一切工作都要验收。因此,业主通过建筑师和监理经常进行督查。可能是名为工程员,建筑师或驻地工程师。作为业主的代表实地视察。核查人员必须确保工程符合合同文件的要求,并在安全的条件下进行的责任。这种检查可作出重复。  此外,验收还是需要一个或多个政府机构的代表。他们必须确保工程符合法律要求,并负责检查与合同文件是否一致。这种视察一般定期或在某些阶段施工结束以后进行。地方或国家建设部门具有管辖权。这些检查的目的是确保符合当地或国家的建筑规范。  以下是传统多层建筑施工的基本程序。  建造开始后合同授予开发商,业主可要求开发商开始施工之前签约给或之后签约发出书面通知的同时另一部分工作继续进行。紧接着施工方根据需要获取建筑许可证,例如当地的建设,供水,污水处理,政府机构和公路部门。  总承包商的计划和进度详细施工作业以及动员项目设备和人员。分包商得到通知后,做出签订合同的意向或授予分包合同书,然后给出在适当的时候进行通知。  在施工前启动,总承包商要进行的一项调查就是邻近结构和地形,这些都要记录在案,并要熟悉当地情况。这项调查结束以后,随即进行布局建设。  承建商的现场办事处都建在施工现场或附近。为了安全起见,必须从脚手架上移除的东西,产生的碎片都要运走。  下一步,该网架是为建设工程准备的。这项工作为地下室开挖和基础开挖的深度,以及公用事业管道转移找到正确的标高。深挖掘,土方支撑,底部排出。  建筑开始于基础上,然后是承重墙和结构框架的施工。梯子,楼梯,或电梯的安装,可让施工人员往返于各个楼层。此外,可安装卷扬机来运送材料。  由于建筑高度的上升,管道,电力管道和线路安装以及永久地板,外墙,窗户和构造的影响。在适当的时候,永久的电梯安装。再需要的情况下可以安装防火卷帘。其次,屋顶等地方也需要安装。  精加工工序安装有包括以下内容:天花板,瓷砖,墙板,墙壁镶板,水管装置,加热炉,空气调节设备,加热和冷却室装置;自动扶梯;地板,窗户玻璃;活动板,门;电气设备和仪器,包括照明灯具,开关,变压器,控制器,遵照项目的图纸和规格。外地办事处,围栏,桥梁和其他临时建筑,公共设备,如天然气,电力管道,水管,都连接到建筑上。最后,是建筑物内部的打扫和清洗。  业主的代表,会给建设工程作最后检查。如果他们满意并认为符合合同文件,那么业主接受该项目,并交给总承包商的一个占用证书,这表明,总承包商已完成建设,建设部门再根据建筑规范的要求发放最后付款。
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竹林轻舞

你的论文准备往什么方向写,选题老师审核通过了没,有没有列个大纲让老师看一下写作方向?  老师有没有和你说论文往哪个方向写比较好?写论文之前,一定要写个大纲,这样老师,好确定了框架,避免以后论文修改  过程中出现大改的情况!!  学校的格式要求、写作规范要注意,否则很可能发回来重新改,你要还有什么不明白或不懂可以问我,希望你能够顺利毕业,  迈向新的人生。    你的论文准备往什么方向写,选题老师审核通过了没,有没有列个大纲让老师看一下写作方向?  老师有没有和你说论文往哪个方向写比较好?写论文之前,一定要写个大纲,这样老师,好确定了框架,避免以后论文修改  过程中出现大改的情况!!  学校的格式要求、写作规范要注意,否则很可能发回来重新改,你要还有什么不明白或不懂可以问我,希望你能够顺利毕业,  迈向新的人生。  每到毕业的时候,就会面临一个难题,那就是论文该怎么写?对于刚毕业的应界毕业生来说,写论文是一件非常难的事情。那么怎样轻松搞定论文是作为毕业生来说最想知道的事情,我这里所教大家怎样写论文是针对大专,以会计电算化的论文为例,本科生请飘过。  大专论文怎么写?  首先,你得确认你要写的题目,先命名。比如:浅析企业应收账款;也可以写银行存款;库存现金等等。  大专论文怎么写?  然后,就要开始收集相关的一些题材,相关的数据在摘要中加以说明。摘要的字数由你所在学校规定。比如:应收账款作为企业的一个常用科目,它在企业的运行过程中起到非常重要的作用,这个一科目的数据将直接影响企业的利润等。  其次,摘要写完后就要准备关健词了。关健词你可以把论文写完后再写。  大专论文怎么写?  然后,开始写大标题,也就是一级标题。第一个标题你应该写:它是什么?比如:应收账款的基本介绍。  大专论文怎么写?  再然后,写第二个一级标题。第二个标题你应该写:它有什么问题?比如:应收账款在企业的运行过程中存在的什么问题?  大专论文怎么写?  接着,写第三个一级标题。第三个标题你应该写:该如何解决它?比如:针对以上应收账款的问题,我认为该这样解决它。。。。。。对你第二个标题内所提出它存在的问题一一解决,同时再加上你的看法等等。  最后,就是参考文献。参考文献的数量也是你所在学校所规定的数量,你可以在网上搜索论文期刊。期刊的网站有很多,一搜就能搜很多出来。然后再挑几个比较常见的又与应收账款相关的词写在关健词处。最后,祝还在为论文烦恼或者奋斗的你,早日完成论文。  大专论文怎么写?  论文(设计)统一用A4版面,竖向横排,双面打印,制作时用A3纸中间装订。版面的边距设为上、下页边距54cm,左、右边距17cm(即Word默认值)。  毕业论文(设计)的封皮版式统一如下:  (1)封面:上部为校徽、校名(毛体手书)和“本科毕业论文(设计)”文字。中下部填写项目包括题目、姓名、学号、所在学院、年级专业、指导教师与职称、完成时间。封面内容均须打印,题目(中文)为三号宋体加粗,题目(英文)为小三Times New Roman,加粗;姓名(中文)、学号、学院、年级专业、指导教师为四号宋体加粗,日期为小四号宋体加粗,姓名(拼音)为小四号Times New Roman,加粗。  (二)封二:包括指导教师评语、答辩小组意见、成绩。如不够填写,可另附A4纸。  (三)封三:包括毕业论文(设计)学术诚信声明和版权使用授权书。  (四)封底:留空白。  毕业论文(设计)的内文  (1)内文按顺序包含中文摘要及关键词、英文(外文)摘要及关键词、目录、正文、注释、参考文献、附录、致谢等,格式规范参见《广东外语外贸大学本科毕业论文(设计)排版规范详解》。  (2)题目,是对研究对象的精确具体的描述,一定程度上体现研究结论,应简明扼要地反映论文(设计)工作的主要内容。毕业论文(设计)中文题目严格控制在25个汉字以内;英文题名一般不宜超过12个实词。题目所限字数不包括副标题。  (3)摘要,应具有独立性和自含性,即不阅读论文(设计)全文,就能获得必要的信息。中文摘要以300字以内为宜。外文摘要应是中文摘要的意译,所表述的内容应与中文摘要一致。  (4)关键词,是为了文献标引工作从论文(设计)中选取出来用以表示全文主题内容信息款目的单词或术语。每篇毕业论文(设计)关键词3-5个。  (5)目录,是论文(设计)的提纲,是论文(设计)各组成部分标题按顺序的排列。目录页排版排至第二级标题,摘要和目录页的页码单独用以下序号“Ⅰ”、“Ⅱ”、“Ⅲ”……底部居中编排,不与正文以同一种格式连排。  (6)正文,是论文(设计)的主体部分,通常由绪论(引论)、本论、结论三部分组成。这三部分在行文上可以不明确标示。正文的各个章节或部分应以若干层级标题来标识。标题层级:理工类与外语类专业统一用阿拉伯数字表示,各级号码之间加一小圆点,末尾一级不加小圆点。如一级用“1”、“2”、“3”,二级用“1”、“2”、“3”,三级用“1”、“2”、“3”…… ,非外语文科专业一级用“一、”、“二、”,二级用“(一)”、“(二)”,三级用“” “ ”……。非外语专业本科毕业论文(设计)正文不少于8000字;外语专业本科毕业论文(设计)应用外语(所学专业语言)撰写,正文不少于6000字(单词)。正文的页码用序号“1”、“2”、“3”……底部居中编排。  (7)图表,采用文内插入形式,采用阿拉伯数字编排序号。图、表应有简明的标题,置于序号后。图序(如“图1”、“图2”)、图题应置于图下正中位置,如系引用,应说明出处。表序(如“表1”、“表2”)、表题应置于表上正中位置,如系引用,应说明出处。表格原则上采用三线表格式。图表标题采用五号黑体;图表中文字采用小五号宋体;图注、表注采用小五号宋体。如图表较多,可以分别列出清单置于目录页之后。图的清单应有序号、表题和页码。图表是文中相关论点的材料,因此文中应有对图表要表明问题的引用说明。  (8)公式,使用计算机软件自带的公式编辑器编写,字体大小以简明美观为基本标准。公式序号一律采用阿拉伯数字依序编排,序号(如“公式1”、“公式2”)置于公式所在行的最右侧。公式应另起一行写在稿纸中央,一行写不完的长公式,最好在等号处转行,如做不到这点,在数学符号(如“+”、“-”号)处转行,数学符号应写在转行后的行首,公式与正文之间要有一定的间距。  (9)注释,用于标注文中引用的文献、说明数据出处或对所注内容作出解释说明,一般分为页末注(脚注)和篇末注(尾注)两种。我校统一使用脚注形式,在文中插入脚注位置点击“插入”——“引用”——“脚注和尾注”——“脚注”,编码采用“1”、“2” ……形式,编号方式选“连续”。毕业论文(设计)若为基金项目资助,在论文正文第1页脚注中注明。  (10)参考文献,主要指参阅的文献,是指作者在写作过程中参阅的文章、著作等文献著录。参考文献数目不少于10篇(部),应尽量选取第一手资料,且尽可能是较新资料。  (11)中文论文文献著录格式参照中华人民共和国国家质量监督检验检疫总局、中国国家标准化管理委员会发布的中华人民共和国国家标准《文后参考文献著录规则(GB/T 7714-2005)》的规定。英文论文文献著录格式按照MLA(Modern Language Association)或APA(American Psychological Association)格式的规范。用其它语种撰写的论文参照相应学院的规定。用中文撰写的论文的参考文献中既有中文文献又有外文文献的,应先列出中文文献,后列出外文文献;用外文撰写的论文的参考文献中既有中文文献又有外文文献的,则先列出外文文献,后列出中文文献。  (12)附录,一般作为毕业论文(设计)主体的补充项目。附录主要包括:正文内过于冗长的公式;供读者阅读方便所需的辅助性数学工具、重复性数据图表;本专业内具有参考价值的数据;对论文中所研究的有声语料或访谈的文字转写材料;论文(设计)使用的符号意义、单位缩写、程序全文及有关说明等。  (13)致谢,主要用于记载作者在毕业论文(设计)写作过程中非学术论证方面的需补充讲述的内容,对提供各类资助、指导和协助完成毕业论文(设计)研究工作的单位和个人表示感谢。

356 评论

快乐Angels

这些都是名字的缩写,学位的缩写只有PhD,MD,BD啊,英文文献好像是不标学位的给你几个示范一下,都是根据国标写的。 作者 文章名 刊物类型 刊物 年度,期卷号:页码范围 [ ] Nikolaev Yu A, Gas Detonation and its Application in Engineering and Technologies[J] Combustion, Explosion, and Shock Waves, 2003, 39(4): 382-410 [ ] LCYang, P H D Key Parameters for Controlling of Function Reliability in “None1 Tube” Explosive Transfer System[C], 1999: AIAA99-31211 [ ] Peng Jinhua, Tang M One of the Applications of Dust Explosions – Nonel System[J] Archivum Combustionis, 1989(9): 223-229 [ ] Liu Dabin, Jiang Rongguang, Yang D The Pressure Characteristics of Nonel Tube in Its Detonation Growth Process[J/OL]: 93-96

80 评论

瑶瑶然然

我毕业设计的时候翻译过英文论文,不过只有3000字,不知道行不行,如果需要给我发信息。

270 评论

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